Firefighter Safety: Tactical Guide

• The fire service experiences an unacceptably high rate of firefighter injuries and fatalities due to a lack of shared lessons.
• The book intends to serve as a tactical guide which emphasizes reflection and policy creation for operational improvements.
• Analyze and share insights from every incident to prevent future similar incidents.
• Protocols are constantly reshaped by past events.
• America Burning report from the 1973 National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control led to the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974.
• The act aimed to reduce life and property loss through enhanced fire prevention and control.
• Formed were the National Fire Academy, National Fire Incident Reporting System, National Bureau of Standards, US Fire Administration (USFA), and National Fire Data Center.
• The book aims to educate firefighters so past lessons wont be forgotten and repeated.
• Transferable insights from fire incidents offer operational flexibility.
• Knowledge from drills, near misses, and past incidents is essential for safety and wellbeing.

Fire Incident 1: Black Sunday Fire

• A firefighter in Brooklyn became separated from his company while searching a basement using interior stairs as fire conditions rapidly changed.
• In the Bronx, firefighters were entrapped on the fourth floor of a four-story apartment building.
• Intense fire conditions forced them to jump from a window to ground level.
• A nor'easter had winds exceeding 45 mph.
• The building had Class 3, non-fireproof construction, and housed multiple dwellings.
• Four firefighters jumped, and two used a makeshift rope that saved their lives.
• Illegal apartments were a chief factor to the incident.
• The single room occupancies (SROs) were locked up with padlocks.
• Illegal walls were built with medium-density fiberboard, which blocked secondary exits.
• There were 2x4s that were short a few inches from the ceiling line and 30 amp fuses used instead of 20 amp.
• Also cheap extension cords were used for the space heater, microwave, TV, and game console.
• Arriving crews saw light smoke with no heat and on the 4th floor there was very light smoke as well.
• A Personal Safety System (PSS) is for untenable positions above grade, used after all other self-rescue methods have been exhausted.
• Tying to a secured object is the PREFERRED method of using a PSS.
• The most dangerous position on the fireground is above the fire, especially without hose line protection.

Fire Incident 2: McDonald’s Fire

• There was visible fire exiting the roof, conditions were rapidly worsening, and a catastrophic roof collapse ensued.
• The building design and fire's intensity involved lightweight construction, wood supports and a dropped ceiling.
• It is important to self-pre-plan and explore the response area's buildings to note changes in occupancy and aid foreground operation safety.
• The most common building construction is a one-story, free-standing lightweight constructed building with a slab on grade without a basement.
• This design is often used by fast food restaurants, featuring critical design features and unique hazards.
• Parapet walls hide the 5 HVAC units and upblast exhaust ventilator fans.
• The walls are over 5 feet making roof access difficult and obscuring the view from ground level.
• Most fires inside these occupancies result from ignition of grease buildup from food preparation as well as lightweight construction materials.

HVAC Equipment

• The largest concentration of HVAC equipment is above the food prep area/kitchen.
• This increases the risk of early collapse from fires in attics or concealed spaces.
• Lack of mass leads to rapid failure under high heat/direct flame contact.
• Mass equates to time, which equates to safety, and safety saves lives.
• Refrigerant gases in HVAC and cooler/freezer appliances pose hazards as they decompose when released under pressure and exposed to high heat.
• Expect a fire in these four locations: kitchen, exhaust hood/duct work, attic (concealed spaces), and roof (HVAC/grease build up).
• Expect early collapse due to the HVAC equipment.
• Expect delayed alarms due to self-extinguishing attempts.
• Expect there to be extensive overhaul due to void spaces.

Fire Attack Considerations

• Location of the fire and avenue for fire attack should be determined prior to committing apparatus/attack lines and utilities should be shut down.
• Steel and aluminum support tracks in ceiling concealed spaces display heat signature with a TIC.
• Create a safer environment and soften via a 360 size-up.
• Interior attack can be used only after a size-up and risk/benefit analysis is completed.
• Early roof system identification is crucial.
• Structure evacuation is an incident priority if a lightweight wood truss system is involved.
• IC and the level under should be notified when heavy equipment is found on the roof.

Fire Incident 3: Knights of Columbus Hall Fire

• A club-type building had fire in the eaves and smoke showing with no cars.
• Firefighter became separated when exiting due to low air and radio.
• Followed the hose line back to the nozzle and flashed over while moving the victim to the exit.
• The cause was electrical cord on a fan became damaged over many years and shorted out.

Fire Department Staffing Requirements

• Commercial and residential fires are different, requiring separate tactical considerations.
• Staffing fire departments with a minimum of 4 FFs on each apparatus is critical to firefighter safety.
• All crews operating in the structure must have the protection of a hose line, especially the RIT.
• The command must review operational effectiveness every ten minutes.
• FFs must be ready for RIT or Mayday operations.
• Increasing staffing levels was one of the most impactful changes
• Assigning an aide to a BC improves command during fire operations.

Actions Needed on the Grounds

• Concealed spaces need to be checked for undetected fires.
• The IC needs to begin FF removal and transition to defensive if fire control is not being attained.
• Calling Mayday as soon as possible maximizes survival.
• Anyone aware of a lost/trapped FF must declare Mayday.
• The NFPA minimum resource level for firefighting allows critical tasks to be done at the same time rather than one after the other.
• Fire officer must always monitor member air levels and degree of fatigue.
• The neutral plane denotes levels in the structure; combustion gases will be exhausted above it, providing insight into the fire's location.

Fire Incident 4: One Meridian Plaza

• Prior to Sept 11th, it was the deadliest high rise office building fire in modern American history.
• A 22nd floor fire in a 38 story building was caused by spontaneous combustion in oil-soaked rags.
• The fire rose until it finally reached an activated sprinklered floor, eight floors up on the 30th floor.
• Three firefighters were disoriented by heavy smoke.
• Electrical system failure caused lighting, travel distance, and fatigue issues, as well as improperly-set pressure reducing valves.

Fighting High Rise Fires

• More resources, including personnel and equipment, are needed for high-rise fires rather than single-family dwellings.
• Contemporary high-rises are larger with more open spaces and are more energy-efficient.
• After a significant emergency call, a post-incident review is needed.
• Duties to ensure life safety priorities, the use of fire protection features, control of corridors, and the identification of access and escape routes should be addressed.
• Procedures, teamwork, and command leadership is needed when every minute matters.
• SOGs are the fire service playbook for navigating hazards, offering department deployment direction through size-up, hazard identification, resource availability, and jurisdictional capabilities.
• Adaptation is key to heighten command duties, ensuring accountability, integrity, record-keeping, construction identification, and burn time estimation.
• Mandatory is reliance on active fire protection and communication systems.

Relationships with Other Organizations

• Operational effectiveness and personnel safety are dependent on workplace relationships with code compliance officials, contracting companies, licensing officials, building staff, and interagency partners.
• Community risk reduction should start with developers and be tracked through the construction and occupancy phases.
• Combine textbook knowledge with street smarts and prioritize research before responding.
• Communication is shared by the fire chief and FFs to reduce risks by always listening, learning, and looking ahead for technology and training.
• Automatic sprinklers offer the best protection and reliability.
• Retrofitting sprinklers is effective when other systems have proven lacking.

Pressure Regulating Devices

• Pressure restricting devices reduce pressure under flowing conditions by lessening the hose outlet's cross-sectional area.
• Pressure control valves are pilot operated and use water to modulate a spring-loaded diaphragm.
• This will reduce downstream pressure under flowing and non-flowing conditions.
• Pressure reducing valves are spring loaded and modulate the valve disk’s position.
• Pre-fire planning should find building and fire protection attributes and note data for emergency use.
• Stack effect is a draft with its magnitude defined by building height, exterior wall straightness, and temperature difference.
• Access stairs serve floors of a common tenant.

Strategic Operating Plan

• Determine the specific fire floor.
• Verify fire floor.
• Start ventilation.
• Gain control of building systems.
• Confine and extinguish fire.

Fire Incident 5: New York Telephone Exchange Fire

• The telephone exchange fire was referred to as "The Miracle on 2nd Ave" by AT&T and "The Disaster on 2nd Ave" or "The Mt. St Helens on E. 13th Street" by FDNY.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), hydrogen chloride, vinyl chloride and other items were burned.
• The entire 11-story fireproof building was full of smoke, especially the lower floors.
• In the aftermath of 9/11, burning items were widely acknowledged for creating toxic air that caused health issues for firefighters.
• The phone fire was the second deadliest and costliest fire after 9/11.
• Windows had riot proof glass with Lexan.
• Windows at street level had heavy metal cages.
• Three employees were missing, and the fire was three floors below sub-cellar cable vaults.
• There was no vertical or horizontal ventilation, no exits, and no contained space with visibility.
• Hours into operation, there was a hydrocarbon gas explosion.
• Ropes used on first floor so everybody knew their floor.

Aftermath Considerations

• Autopsy was old, heavy deposits still inside one's lung.
• Lung edema and dead patches existed.
• PVC smoke had turned into hydrochloric acid and ate the lungs.
• Gas masks were founded to protect members from hydrochloric acid, which was a liquid version of hydrogen chloride.
• Medical monitoring was a red star.
• Cancers have a latency period of more than 20 years (leukemia, bladder, colon, kidney).
• Signaled the end of FFs not using the SCBA and wipes should be used on their head, neck, and hands.
• Annual medicals are key to early detection.
• Mask use is the best way to protect yourself, and that must include mask use during overhaul.

Fire Incident 6: Ebenezer Baptist Church Fire

• Backdraft/explosion occurred 42 minutes later and 3 1/2 hours after the bell.
• The St. Patrick’s Day smoke explosion injured many firefighters.
• The 118 ft bell tower predictably collapsed after it was under control, still trapping more FFs putting out hotspots.

Command

• It is essential to know where the fire is, where it is going, and the IC makes the decisions.
• No operational strategy change was communicated.
• ISO didn’t put the SCBA back on after the break so no PASS device.
• It is important to be cognizant of their role and make decisions.
• Legacy churches are dangerous for firefighters
• Structural status of the building should be found.
• Pre-plan is available.
• Structural failure exists in all fires both during and after.
• Collapse zones must be equivalent to the height up to 1.5x the height.
• It is important to have a clear command system and know the dangers.
• Concealed spaces could be in hollow stone columns.

Church Fires

• Most fires in places of worship that are discovered and reported will be taken care of.
• Always prepare for the outside attack for wood trusses.
• The circular rose window (1st priority) is found within places of prayer.
• The tower ladder may put out roof fires.
• A good place for water is the attic vent.
• Place water into ventilation.

Fire Incident 7: Duplex Fire with FF Trapped

• Staffing and difficult rescue.
• It is important to have wood framing at least 1200 sq ft and unfinished.
• There was through the roof and everybody had to leave.
• He/they fill through down to the basement.
• Protection, fire attack, and third line is put into place.

Hoselines

• Three 1.75" of hose is needed.
• Lines must flow between 180-200 gpm.
• Each line needs a min of 3 Firefighters.
• Water needs to be on the fire.

Firefighting

• Firefighting involves water supply, entry, search, and ventilation.
• One firefighter handles water.
• Entry crew must search.
• At least 2 firefighters are needed to ventilate.
• A rescue team must be assigned.
• It can be too late after the companies arrive.
• At least 4 Firefighters are used to start the process.
• 4 can be the bare minimum.
• It can also be a collapse and dangerous with rescue conditions.
• No one was injured because a truck had full involvement.
• It took the RIT Team nine minutes to extract.

Accurate Information

• Update information.
• Open communication between the incident commander.
• Continuously size things up.
• Hazards/layout, etc can aid in decision making.

Fire Incident 8: Southwest Supermarket Fire

• It was initially dispatched for a trash fire.
• Due to the wind, the flames travelled to the building's trusst.
• 12 maydays and people were injured from the exterior with the fire.
• It took 50 minutes to locate.
• labeled it "The Recovery".
• it is important to see what is able to be improved from the department.
• Firefighters defined operation tactics that aided in drills.
• Effective and safe sizing is important.
• Hoseline ability to make exits.
• If firefighters are injured in "mayday situations", it can affect resources from "won mayday".
• Effective size help lead firefighters to be in top tier positions.

Knowledge is critical

• Knowledge aids in our understanding of fire behavior.
• Effective time and well timed attacks improves outcomes with vent.
• There should be a competent understanding.
• water is placed in important places.
• Placing emphases on water helps surpression.

Ventilation

• Vents are needed for fire attacks and worsens conditions if no fire attacks are in place.
• It can make new heat and smoke.
• Teamwork is needed to manage sectors.
• If is done, the mayday effort will be more efficient.
• Those in the position need to look at risks in the conditions at the time.
• There are few rescues that happen from the fireground.
• Fire behavior needs to be known.
• It needs a proper size up.
• The window relates to the air level.
• fire fighting should maintain its fight for rescue.

Fire Incident 9

• On the back, the houses have a basement walk.
• A fire arose when conditions became windy.

Firefighting

• Weather should be known.
• Should understand weather conditions as they come.
• Dunn said there are no new deaths in fires.
• Should not underestimate weather as it can change a fire.

Fire Incident 10: Squirrelsnest Lane Dwelling Fire

• The winds were 17 Mph and lite rain at this.
• 2 story house and partial collapse.
• It is important to know self rescue as a firefighter.
• It is dangerous to do a basement fire.
• Wood framework it at greatest danger.
• Private dwellings contain lots of danger.
• Unprotected materials may fail in minutes.
• There is never a safe time.
• There are hazardous places within families in these instances.

Fire Incident 11: Marsh Overlook

• Buildings have small light trusses.
• There are severe hurricanes.
• Interior lights are on.
• There should be a 360 degree size up.
• The crew started with small conditions to then zero visibility.
• Safety can be improved with equipment.
• wind can easily enhance the fire.
• Should keep the wind for the inside fire.
• modern materials help impact fire spread.
• FF's should be trained in tactics and decisions.
• FF officer must find time for this.
• SLICER is what is used to help identify a fire.
• Don't dictate what to do because muscle memory is important to a firefighter.

Exteriors

• Should stretch out a hose to the external area.
• Need a clear view of all the angles.

Fire Incident 12: Battery Explosion

• Didn't have a plan in place.
• Can start with defects in the battery.
• Defect is the cause it could not prevent damages.
• Don't turn it over to the the companies until it is known.
• Lack of smoke can make it appear safe.
• Can go under the limit for being bad until ventilated.
• Mechanical damage can trigger a thermal failure.
• Units have to be soaked in water in order to cool the unit.
• Air monitoring for the responder should happen.
• ESS can cause an erroneous reading.
• BESS can be conducted remotely.

Fire incident 13

• Heavy smoke is made by wind-driven fire.
• It is har to refuse acknowledgement. -Accountability must be enforced.
• Openings should be controlled.

Fire Incident 14: Cherry Road Fire

• 60 feet in this area.
• Wind reached 20 feet.
• smoke can increase as well, it can be very confusing for the IC, therefore its important to relay fire information.
• Important catalysts and info as well.
• Don't delay attack.
• Vents equal cooling by the use of water applied.

Fire Incident 15: Southwest Inn Fire

• Wind was part to a problem in wind.
• Know how long the bulding.
• It also impacts how fast a fire can burn and spread.
• If is a matter of physics and can overpower dynamics.
• They should always know dynamics of truss, members etc.
• Should be good communication for the safest tactics.

Fire incident 16: Dimond Heights Fire

• Curtains on fire can signal an electrical fire.
• A room shattered allowing it to start a fire.
• Heat can damage the cord.
• Radio Attempts

Fire incident 17

• They should not put the crew up in the stair due to gases.
• Should conduct a 360.

Fire Safety

• One the windows.
• Be familiar and and safe at the rear/sides.

Fire Incident 18: Charleston Sofa Super Story Fire

• Place dry hoselines.
• The back doors were cut open.
• FFs lose track of where they are at due to steel trusst of a warehouse.
• Venting tactics are very important.
• The larger, the higher the release of heat.
• Units must radio in.
• Unity of commands
• Fire Surpression
• Placement of hoseline.

Fire Incident 19: Yarnell Hill fire

• microburst, which led to fire changing.
• communications and tracking are key
• With rank comes responsibility.
• changes and hazards are key.
• need for building support.

Fire Incident 20: Hackensack ford fires

• Firefighters enemy.
• Timber bowstring can cause fire condition inside
• type II will have some damage
• all officers has some information after scene
• there can be one radio
• it is important to to follow the laws

Fire incident 21: woods cape dwelling

• lighting can cause gas leak
• high importance on early suppression, 22min to long
• integrity of the team
• must have the proper stuff and tools.
• all the firefighter have the tools to take care of themselves.

Fire incident 22: Oscela

• requires the skill and resources to handle it.

Fire incident 23: Walton Ave

• all can be expected, needs full support and materials.
• plan, gear and training.
• The better fire rating if the girders.

Fire Incident 24: PA state

• all about scba and maintenance
• be familiar with it.

Fire Incident 25: Englewood

• fire and oxygen
• humour can keep you sane and calm.
• one of the most dangerous in world.

Fire incident 26: Ghost

• have proper code.
• should follow up so they can come after you and help.

Fire Incident 27: Worcester

• should always be prepped and always search below the fire.
• if you short, get the hell out.
• the structure type
• should take the right path
• is there any toxic gases present.

Fire Incident 28: Vandalia

• human errors.
• if is winded it is not a norm case
• there is five parts for it be windy
• they have to figure a side on the walls
• high or low sides.

Fire incident 29: keokuk

• most of the had pass on and one of the most tragic case that happen on their job
• can be a very difficult one.
• It is important not to have emotinal vision.

Fire incident 30

• what the size the type
• can toxic damage there skin
• and it can make them lose and get hurt on thier body
• have to be aware where to put the firetruck
• that a bleve . Always leave and follow safety code and contact them.