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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of external respiration?

  • To exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen between the blood and alveoli (correct)
  • To transport gases throughout the body
  • To facilitate cellular metabolism
  • To regulate blood pH levels

    • How does oxygen primarily move from the alveoli into the blood?

  • Via circulatory system pumps
  • Through diffusion due to concentration gradients (correct)
  • By endocytosis
  • By active transport mechanisms

    • Which of the following best describes internal respiration?

  • Gas exchange in the lungs
  • Carbon dioxide removal from the body
  • Gas exchange between blood and tissue cells (correct)
  • Oxygen binding to hemoglobin

    • In the systemic circuit, what does blood primarily deliver to body tissues?

    <p>Oxygen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to dark red blood as it flows through the pulmonary circuit?

    <p>It transforms to high oxygen (scarlet) blood (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism does NOT play a role in gas transport within the bloodstream?

    <p>Direct diffusion of gases from the lungs to tissues (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the roles of the bicarbonate buffering system in respiration?

    <p>To regulate the pH of the blood (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which respiratory sound is typically associated with narrowed airways?

    <p>Stridor (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily drives the diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries?

    <p>Higher concentration of oxygen in the alveoli (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During external respiration, what happens to carbon dioxide as it moves from the blood to the alveoli?

    <p>It diffuses due to a higher concentration in the blood (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is most oxygen transported in the blood?

    <p>Attached to hemoglobin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the bicarbonate buffering system, which component is formed when carbon dioxide enters red blood cells?

    <p>Carbonic acid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of carbon dioxide transported in the blood is bound to hemoglobin?

    <p>Between 20 and 30 percent (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process describes the exchange of gases between blood and tissue cells?

    <p>Internal respiration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about external respiration is correct?

    <p>Tissue cells release carbon dioxide into the blood (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does bicarbonate (HCO3) play in the blood?

    <p>It helps buffer blood pH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of external respiration?

    <p>To facilitate gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism is responsible for gas transport in the bloodstream?

    <p>Oxygen and carbon dioxide binding to hemoglobin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of alveolar macrophages in the respiratory system?

    <p>To pick up bacteria and debris (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during internal respiration?

    <p>Carbon dioxide is unloaded from blood at systemic capillaries (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes pulmonary ventilation?

    <p>Movement of air in and out of the lungs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the bicarbonate buffering system aid respiration?

    <p>By helping to regulate blood pH during gas exchange (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure forms the air-blood barrier?

    <p>Alveolar walls, capillary walls, and their fused basement membranes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process ensures that gases in the alveoli are continuously refreshed?

    <p>Pulmonary ventilation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    External Respiration

    The exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood.

    Oxygen diffusion

    Oxygen moves from the alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs to the blood.

    Carbon dioxide diffusion

    Carbon dioxide moves from the blood to the alveoli in the lungs.

    Oxyhemoglobin

    Oxygen bound to hemoglobin inside red blood cells (RBCs).

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    Plasma CO2 transport

    CO2 is transported in the blood plasma primarily as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).

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    Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)

    A major form in which CO2 is transported in the bloodstream; it plays a key role in blood pH buffering.

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    Internal Respiration

    The exchange of gases between the blood and the body tissues.

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    Alveolar Pores

    Tiny openings connecting adjacent alveoli, providing alternative air routes if bronchioles are blocked.

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    Respiratory Membrane

    A thin barrier between alveolar air and capillary blood, allowing gas exchange by diffusion.

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    Pulmonary Ventilation

    The movement of air into and out of the lungs, ensuring constant gas exchange in the alveoli.

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    External Respiration

    Gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood (oxygen loading, carbon dioxide unloading).

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    Respiratory Gas Transport

    The movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide through the bloodstream to and from the lungs and body tissues.

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    Internal Respiration

    Gas exchange between the blood and body tissues (oxygen unloading, carbon dioxide loading).

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    Alveolar Macrophages

    Immune cells in the alveoli that remove debris like bacteria and carbon particles.

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    Surfactant

    A lipid substance produced by specialized cells that coats alveoli, reducing surface tension.

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    Respiratory Volumes

    Measurements of the different volumes of air involved in breathing, like tidal volume, inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, and residual volume. These volumes tell us how much air a person can move in and out of their lungs.

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    Spirometer

    A medical device used to measure lung volumes and capacities, aiding in diagnosing respiratory issues.

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    Bronchial Sounds

    Respiratory sounds caused by air moving through large airways like the trachea and bronchi. Sounds will be harsh & louder.

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    Vesicular Sounds

    Soft, murmuring respiratory sounds heard during inhalation and exhalation, resulting from the air filling the alveoli of the lungs.

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    Abnormal Lung Sounds

    Unusual sounds detected during auscultation of the lungs, reflecting potential problems like infections, blockages, or fluid buildup.

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    Crackles/Rales

    Bubbling or rattling sounds heard in the lungs, often indicative of fluid or mucus.

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    Wheezing

    Whistling or squeaking sounds during breathing, often caused by narrowing of the airways.

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    Rhonchi

    Snoring-like sounds in the lungs, often due to mucus in the larger airways.

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    Stridor

    High-pitched, harsh sounds during breathing, usually due to blockage in the upper airways.

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    Pleural Friction Rub

    Nonmusical, creaking or grating sounds, often caused by inflammation of the lining of the lungs.

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    External Respiration

    The exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood.

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    Internal Respiration

    Gas exchange between the blood and the body tissues.

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    Study Notes

    Respiratory System - Anatomy

    • Oxygen is essential for ATP (chemical energy) production.
    • Carbon dioxide is a byproduct of ATP production and must be removed from the blood.
    • High CO2 levels lower blood pH, requiring maintenance within narrow limits for homeostasis.

    Structures of the Respiratory System

    • External Nose: Encloses the chamber for air inspiration. Air can also be inspired through the mouth, which is part of the digestive system, not the respiratory system.
    • Nasal Cavity: A cleaning, warming, and humidifying chamber for inspired air.
    • Pharynx (Throat): A shared passageway for food and air.
    • Larynx (Voice Box): Its rigid structure keeps the airway open (patent).
    • Trachea (Windpipe): An air-cleaning tube that funnels inspired air to each lung.
    • Bronchi: Tubes that direct air into the lungs.
    • Lungs: Labyrinthine structures of air tubes and air sacs (alveoli) with capillaries, separated by connective tissue with collagenous and elastic fibers. Alveoli are the site of gas exchange between air and blood.

    The Nose

    • The only externally visible part of the respiratory system.
    • Air enters the nose through the nostrils.
    • Nasal cavity is divided by the nasal septum.
    • Olfactory receptors are located in the superior nasal cavity mucosa, near the ethmoid bone.
    • Respiratory mucosa warms the air as it passes through the rich network of thin-walled veins.
    • Sticky mucus traps bacteria and debris, with lysozyme enzymes destroying bacteria.
    • Conchae (mucosa-covered projections) increase air turbulence in the nasal cavity.
    • Palate separates the nasal and oral cavities (hard palate is supported by bone; soft palate is unsupported).
    • Paranasal sinuses (frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary) lighten the skull and act as resonant chambers for speech, producing mucus that drains into the nasal cavities.
    • Rhinitis: caused by cold viruses and allergens, resulting in nasal congestion and postnasal drip.
    • Sinusitis: sinus inflammation; difficult to treat and may cause marked changes in voice quality.

    Pharynx

    • A muscular passageway (about 13cm/5 inches).
    • Shared passageway for food and air.
    • Continuous with the nasal cavity anteriorly via the posterior nasal aperture (opening).
    • Three regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.
    • Food enters the mouth and travels through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx before being directed toward the esophagus by the epiglottis.
    • Pharyngotympanic tube drains the middle ears, opening into the nasopharynx.
    • Pharyngeal tonsils/adenoids are located high in the nasopharynx.
    • Palatine tonsils, paired, are located at the end of the soft palate in the oropharynx.
    • Lingual tonsils lie at the base of the tongue.
    • Tubal tonsils protect the openings of the pharyngotympanic tube.
    • Tonsils play a role in protecting the body from infection.

    Larynx

    • Voice Box
    • Routes air and food to the appropriate channels.
    • Role in speech.
    • Located inferior to the pharynx.
    • Formed by 8 rigid hyaline cartilages and an epiglottis(spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage).
    • Thyroid cartilage is the largest hyaline cartilage; it protrudes anteriorly (Adam's apple).
    • Epiglottis: spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage; guards the superior opening of the larynx; during swallowing, it tips forward, covering the larynx's opening.
    • Cough reflex prevents substances other than air from entering the lungs.
    • Vocal folds (true vocal cords) vibrate with expelled air, enabling speech.
    • Glottis is the slitlike passageway between the vocal folds.

    Trachea (Windpipe)

    • 10-12 cm (4 inches) in length.
    • Travels from the larynx to the fifth thoracic vertebra.
    • Composed of C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage; open parts of rings abut esophagus allowing expansion when swallowing.
    • Solid portions support trachea walls, keeping it open.
    • Trachealis muscle completes wall posteriorly.
    • Lined with ciliated mucosa.
    • Cilia beat continuously upward, propelling mucus loaded with dust particles to the throat.

    Bronchial Tree

    • Formed by the division of the trachea.
    • The main bronchus subdivides into smaller branches: secondary and tertiary bronchi, etc., ending on bronchioles.
    • Bronchial/Respiratory tree is the network formed by the branching and rebranching of the respiratory passageways within the lungs.

    Lungs

    • Large, spongy organs weighing about 2 1/2 pounds.
    • Occupy the entire thoracic cavity.
    • Apex: the narrow superior portion deep to the clavicle.
    • Base: broad area resting on the diaphragm.
    • Divided into lobes (left lung has two lobes; right lung has three lobes).
    • Pulmonary pleura/visceral pleura: covers the surface of the lungs.
    • Parietal pleura: covers the walls of the thoracic cavity.
    • Pleural fluid: reduces friction during breathing.
    • Pleural space: a potential space, not an actual space.

    Respiratory Zone Structures and Respiratory Membrane

    • Alveoli: tiny air sacs at the ends of bronchioles; only site of gas exchange.
    • Respiratory zone includes respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs.
    • Conducting zone structures are the rest of the respiratory passages, serving as conduits to the respiratory zone.
    • Alveolar pores connect neighboring alveoli, providing alternate routes for air.
    • The alveolar/capillary walls, basement membranes, and elastic fibers form the respiratory membrane.
    • Alveolar macrophages (dust cells) are involved in defense.
    • Surfactant, a lipid molecule, coats alveolar surfaces reducing surface tension and preventing collapse.

    Physiology of Respiration - Mechanism of Breathing

    • Breathing/pulmonary ventilation is the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
    • Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which result in gases flowing to equalize the pressure.
    • Inspiration:
      • Diaphragm contracts inferiorly, increasing the superior-inferior dimension (height) of the thoracic cavity.
      • External intercostal muscles contract, lifting the rib cage and increasing the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the thorax.
      • Lungs adhere to the thorax walls, stretching with the increase in thoracic size.
      • Gases in the lungs spread out to fill the larger space, decreasing lung pressure below atmospheric pressure.
      • Air flows into the lungs until intrapulmonary pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
    • Expiration:
      • Inspiratory muscles relax, resuming resting length.
      • Rib cage descends.
      • Diaphragm relaxes superiorly.
      • Lungs recoil naturally.
      • Thoracic and intrapulmonary volumes decrease.
      • Intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric pressure.
      • Air passively flows out of the lungs to equalize the pressure.
      • Forced expiration uses internal intercostals muscles and abdominal muscles to depress the rib cage and force air out of the lungs.
    • Intrapleural pressure is always negative (lower than the pressure inside the lungs) preventing lung collapse.

    Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

    • Spirometer: measures respiratory capacities.
    • Normal quiet breathing: ~500 mL of air in and out.
    • Tidal Volume (TV): respiratory volume during quiet breathing; ~500ml
    • Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled above the TV, ~3,100 ml.
    • Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled beyond the TV, ~1,200 ml.
    • Residual Volume: amount of air remaining in the lungs, ~1,200 ml ,essential for continuous gas exchange between breaths.

    Respiratory (Gas Exchange) Physiology

    • External Respiration: pulmonary gas exchange; exchange of gases between the alveoli and the blood. Oxygen is loaded, CO2 is unloaded.
    • Internal Respiration: systemic gas exchange; exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells; oxygen is unloaded from blood; CO2 is loaded into blood.
    • Gas exchange obeys the laws of diffusion, occurring from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration.

    Neural and Non-Neural Regulation of Respiration

    • Neural Regulation:
      • Neural centers control rhythm and depth of respiration in the medulla oblongata and pons.
      • Ventral respiratory group maintains a normal quiet breathing rate (~12-20 breaths/minute) called eupnea.
      • Hyperpnea involves vigorous and deep breathing.
    • Non-Neural Regulation:
      • Physical factors (temperature increase, exercise, talking, coughing).
      • Volition (conscious control - singing, swallowing, swimming).
      • Emotional factors.
      • Chemical factors (levels of CO2 and O2 in the blood).
      • Hyperventilation is an increase in the rate and depth of breathing exceeding the body's need to remove CO2.

    Developmental Aspects of Respiration

    • Fetus: lungs filled with fluid; respiratory exchanges through the placenta.
    • Birth: fluid drains, alveoli inflate; function in gas exchange after birth.
    • Surfactant: lowers surface tension of alveolar sacs, preventing collapse.
    • Newborn respiratory rate 40 - 80 cpm.
    • 5 years: 25 cpm.
    • Adults: 12 -20 cpm.
    • Infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS) is in prematurely born infants.
    • Cystic Fibrosis involves oversecretion of thick mucus in airways, potentially leading to fatal respiratory infections.
    • Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is sudden, unexpected death of apparently healthy infants during sleep.

    Respiratory Diseases

    • COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease).
    • Chronic Bronchitis.
    • Emphysema.
    • Lung Cancer (AdenoCA, Squamous Cell CA, Small Cell CA).
    • Asthma
    • Sleep Apnea

    Nonrespiratory Air Movements

    • Cough: forceful expulsion of air to clear lower airways.
    • Sneeze: forceful expulsion of air to clear upper airways.
    • Crying: rapid inspirations followed by a series of short expirations.
    • Laughing: similar to crying but with quicker and more short expirations
    • Hiccups: sudden inspirations from diaphragm spasms
    • Yawn: very deep inspirations

    Abnormal Lung Sounds

    • Crackles/Rales: bubbling sounds.
    • Wheezing: whistling sounds.
    • Rhonchi: snore-like sounds.
    • Stridor: high-pitched, wheeze-like sounds.
    • Pleural friction rub: nonmusical, short, creaking or grating sound.

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