Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary characteristic of leukotrienes?
What is the primary characteristic of leukotrienes?
What is the role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in relation to COX enzymes?
What is the role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in relation to COX enzymes?
What distinguishes COX-2 inhibitors from traditional NSAIDs?
What distinguishes COX-2 inhibitors from traditional NSAIDs?
What type of fatty acid are leukotrienes derived from?
What type of fatty acid are leukotrienes derived from?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a known effect of leukotrienes?
Which of the following is NOT a known effect of leukotrienes?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of fatty acids has more than one carbon-carbon double bond?
What type of fatty acids has more than one carbon-carbon double bond?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement accurately describes trans fatty acids?
Which statement accurately describes trans fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids is also known as linoleic acid?
Which of the following fatty acids is also known as linoleic acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect do cis double bonds have on the melting point of fatty acids?
What effect do cis double bonds have on the melting point of fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement is true regarding the solubility of fatty acids?
Which statement is true regarding the solubility of fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids is associated with brain tissue?
Which of the following fatty acids is associated with brain tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
How does increasing the chain length of fatty acids affect their melting point?
How does increasing the chain length of fatty acids affect their melting point?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary reason for partial hydrogenation of fats and oils?
What is the primary reason for partial hydrogenation of fats and oils?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of fatty acids are solid at room temperature?
What type of fatty acids are solid at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is classified as a monounsaturated fatty acid?
Which fatty acid is classified as a monounsaturated fatty acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What reaction do fatty acids undergo similar to other carboxylic acids?
What reaction do fatty acids undergo similar to other carboxylic acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids is known for decreasing heart disease risk?
Which of the following fatty acids is known for decreasing heart disease risk?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to the solubility of fatty acids in water as their chain length increases?
What happens to the solubility of fatty acids in water as their chain length increases?
Signup and view all the answers
What indicates the presence of double bonds in an unsaturated fatty acid's notation?
What indicates the presence of double bonds in an unsaturated fatty acid's notation?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is a saturated fatty acid with 18 carbons?
Which fatty acid is a saturated fatty acid with 18 carbons?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is commonly found in fish oils?
Which fatty acid is commonly found in fish oils?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of fat is referred to as 'bad cholesterol'?
Which type of fat is referred to as 'bad cholesterol'?
Signup and view all the answers
What characterizes the structure of saturated fatty acids?
What characterizes the structure of saturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the process called that results in the breaking of 1-2 ester bonds in triacylglycerols?
What is the process called that results in the breaking of 1-2 ester bonds in triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
What does rancidity primarily result from?
What does rancidity primarily result from?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following describes saponification?
Which of the following describes saponification?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of lipids primarily form the structural components of biological membranes?
What type of lipids primarily form the structural components of biological membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the effect of hydrogenation on unsaturated fatty acids?
What is the effect of hydrogenation on unsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of phospholipids in cell membranes?
What is the primary function of phospholipids in cell membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
How are fats and oils typically hydrolyzed to prepare soap?
How are fats and oils typically hydrolyzed to prepare soap?
Signup and view all the answers
What occurs during the oxidation of triacylglycerols?
What occurs during the oxidation of triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary type of energy storage material in human cells?
What is the primary type of energy storage material in human cells?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main characteristic of triglycerides?
What is the main characteristic of triglycerides?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of lipid is characterized by its solid state at room temperature?
Which type of lipid is characterized by its solid state at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of triacylglycerol contains more than one kind of fatty acid?
Which type of triacylglycerol contains more than one kind of fatty acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the outcome of hydrolysis of triacylglycerols within the human body?
What is the outcome of hydrolysis of triacylglycerols within the human body?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes fats from oils?
What distinguishes fats from oils?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the recommended dietary intake for monounsaturated fat in calories?
What is the recommended dietary intake for monounsaturated fat in calories?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a chemical reaction associated with triacylglycerols?
Which of the following is a chemical reaction associated with triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
Which function groups give triacylglycerols their chemical properties?
Which function groups give triacylglycerols their chemical properties?
Signup and view all the answers
Which process involves adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats to increase saturation?
Which process involves adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats to increase saturation?
Signup and view all the answers
What typically occurs to fats over time when exposed to air or moisture?
What typically occurs to fats over time when exposed to air or moisture?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements is true about stored triglycerides?
Which of the following statements is true about stored triglycerides?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the effect of increasing cis double bonds in fatty acids?
What is the effect of increasing cis double bonds in fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is known for being a source in corn oil and animal tissues?
Which fatty acid is known for being a source in corn oil and animal tissues?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic of trans fatty acids?
What is a characteristic of trans fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to the solubility of fatty acids as their chain length increases?
What happens to the solubility of fatty acids as their chain length increases?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids has the highest number of double bonds?
Which of the following fatty acids has the highest number of double bonds?
Signup and view all the answers
Which option correctly describes the relationship between chain length and melting point of fatty acids?
Which option correctly describes the relationship between chain length and melting point of fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary purpose of synthetic trans fats created through hydrogenation?
What is the primary purpose of synthetic trans fats created through hydrogenation?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the presence of bends in a fatty acid chain influence its physical state at room temperature?
How does the presence of bends in a fatty acid chain influence its physical state at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of leukotrienes in the body?
What is the primary role of leukotrienes in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
How do COX-2 inhibitors function in relation to inflammation?
How do COX-2 inhibitors function in relation to inflammation?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a typical effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)?
Which of the following is NOT a typical effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)?
Signup and view all the answers
What ingredients primarily compose leukotrienes?
What ingredients primarily compose leukotrienes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main purpose of utilizing COX-2 inhibitors in medical treatments?
What is the main purpose of utilizing COX-2 inhibitors in medical treatments?
Signup and view all the answers
What are glycerophospholipids primarily composed of?
What are glycerophospholipids primarily composed of?
Signup and view all the answers
Which glycerophospholipid is often found in the inner leaflet of the membrane?
Which glycerophospholipid is often found in the inner leaflet of the membrane?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the simplest form of sphingoglycolipid?
What is the simplest form of sphingoglycolipid?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes sphingomyelin from other sphingolipids?
What distinguishes sphingomyelin from other sphingolipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of sphingolipid contains only neutral sugars?
What type of sphingolipid contains only neutral sugars?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a characteristic of cholesterol?
Which of the following is a characteristic of cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a major characteristic of gangliosides?
What is a major characteristic of gangliosides?
Signup and view all the answers
Which reaction can be used to estimate cholesterol levels?
Which reaction can be used to estimate cholesterol levels?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a significant role of cholesterol in the human body?
What is a significant role of cholesterol in the human body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of phosphatidylinositol in cell membranes?
What is the role of phosphatidylinositol in cell membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
What defines the primary function of glycerophospholipids in membranes?
What defines the primary function of glycerophospholipids in membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is unique about the structure of cholesterol?
What is unique about the structure of cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipids are known to contain a sugar attached to sphingosine?
Which lipids are known to contain a sugar attached to sphingosine?
Signup and view all the answers
Cholesterol can be derived from which of the following substances?
Cholesterol can be derived from which of the following substances?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement is true about cerebrosides?
Which statement is true about cerebrosides?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a common dietary source of phosphatidylcholine?
Which of the following is a common dietary source of phosphatidylcholine?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipid class is primarily associated with the cell membrane and includes sphingomyelin?
Which lipid class is primarily associated with the cell membrane and includes sphingomyelin?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect do polyunsaturated acids have on plasma cholesterol levels?
What effect do polyunsaturated acids have on plasma cholesterol levels?
Signup and view all the answers
Which component is not associated with the structure of cholesterol?
Which component is not associated with the structure of cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
In which part of the body is cholesterol NOT synthesized?
In which part of the body is cholesterol NOT synthesized?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of bile acids in digestion?
What is the primary role of bile acids in digestion?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement accurately describes steroid hormones?
Which statement accurately describes steroid hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
What physiological effects do eicosanoids typically have?
What physiological effects do eicosanoids typically have?
Signup and view all the answers
Which hormone is classified under glucocorticoids?
Which hormone is classified under glucocorticoids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a primary function of prostaglandins?
What is a primary function of prostaglandins?
Signup and view all the answers
What do mineralocorticoids primarily regulate?
What do mineralocorticoids primarily regulate?
Signup and view all the answers
Which eicosanoid is involved in promoting platelet aggregation?
Which eicosanoid is involved in promoting platelet aggregation?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a characteristic of steroid hormones?
Which of the following is a characteristic of steroid hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
How do eicosanoids generally operate in the body?
How do eicosanoids generally operate in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of bile acids in stimulating bile flow?
What is the role of bile acids in stimulating bile flow?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a significant role of leukotrienes in the human body?
What is a significant role of leukotrienes in the human body?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes COX-2 inhibitors from conventional NSAIDs?
What distinguishes COX-2 inhibitors from conventional NSAIDs?
Signup and view all the answers
Which outcome is most likely due to the inhibition of COX enzymes by NSAIDs?
Which outcome is most likely due to the inhibition of COX enzymes by NSAIDs?
Signup and view all the answers
What characteristic best describes the structure of leukotrienes?
What characteristic best describes the structure of leukotrienes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which clinical significance is associated with the use of selective COX-2 inhibitors?
Which clinical significance is associated with the use of selective COX-2 inhibitors?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids contains more than one carbon-carbon double bond?
Which of the following fatty acids contains more than one carbon-carbon double bond?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the presence of cis double bonds affect the melting point of fatty acids?
How does the presence of cis double bonds affect the melting point of fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids is primarily sourced from brain tissue?
Which of the following fatty acids is primarily sourced from brain tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the impact of increasing chain length on the solubility of fatty acids?
What is the impact of increasing chain length on the solubility of fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is associated with increased melting point due to even-numbered carbon atoms?
Which fatty acid is associated with increased melting point due to even-numbered carbon atoms?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements about trans fatty acids is true?
Which of the following statements about trans fatty acids is true?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the typical effect of multiple double bonds on the physical state of fatty acids at room temperature?
What is the typical effect of multiple double bonds on the physical state of fatty acids at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is a typical source of omega-6 fatty acids found in corn oil?
Which fatty acid is a typical source of omega-6 fatty acids found in corn oil?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary source of cholesterol production in the human body?
What is the primary source of cholesterol production in the human body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements is true regarding dietary cholesterol?
Which of the following statements is true regarding dietary cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What percentage of cell membranes is comprised of cholesterol by mass?
What percentage of cell membranes is comprised of cholesterol by mass?
Signup and view all the answers
How are lipoproteins primarily characterized?
How are lipoproteins primarily characterized?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following conditions is NOT directly associated with cholesterol levels?
Which of the following conditions is NOT directly associated with cholesterol levels?
Signup and view all the answers
What role does cholesterol play in nerve and brain tissue?
What role does cholesterol play in nerve and brain tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between cholesterol and cardiovascular disease?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between cholesterol and cardiovascular disease?
Signup and view all the answers
Which food source is noted for having no cholesterol?
Which food source is noted for having no cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the typical daily synthesis of cholesterol by the liver?
What is the typical daily synthesis of cholesterol by the liver?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the approximate amount of cholesterol present in every 100 ml of blood plasma?
What is the approximate amount of cholesterol present in every 100 ml of blood plasma?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary product formed from the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols?
What is the primary product formed from the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
During the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids, which chemical structure is primarily altered?
During the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids, which chemical structure is primarily altered?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect does oxidation have on triacylglycerols when exposed to oxygen?
What effect does oxidation have on triacylglycerols when exposed to oxygen?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a common method used to prepare soap through saponification?
What is a common method used to prepare soap through saponification?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of phospholipids in biological membranes?
What is the role of phospholipids in biological membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement best describes hydrolytic rancidity?
Which statement best describes hydrolytic rancidity?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary structural characteristic of waxes?
What is the primary structural characteristic of waxes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which class of lipids is most abundant in cell membranes, comprising up to 80% of their mass?
Which class of lipids is most abundant in cell membranes, comprising up to 80% of their mass?
Signup and view all the answers
What is typically not a result of oxidation in unsaturated triacylglycerols?
What is typically not a result of oxidation in unsaturated triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
In the context of biological membranes, what is the primary function of sterols like cholesterol?
In the context of biological membranes, what is the primary function of sterols like cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of bile acids in lipid digestion?
What is the primary role of bile acids in lipid digestion?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipid class derives its structure from arachidonic acid?
Which lipid class derives its structure from arachidonic acid?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following steroid hormones is primarily involved in regulating ion balances in the body?
Which of the following steroid hormones is primarily involved in regulating ion balances in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a common effect of prostaglandins in the human body?
What is a common effect of prostaglandins in the human body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which property distinguishes eicosanoids from classical hormones?
Which property distinguishes eicosanoids from classical hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a structure of steroid hormones?
Which of the following is NOT a structure of steroid hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
What physiological response is primarily associated with thromboxanes?
What physiological response is primarily associated with thromboxanes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which vitamin absorption is directly facilitated by bile acids?
Which vitamin absorption is directly facilitated by bile acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What components do mixed micelles transport to the intestinal mucosa?
What components do mixed micelles transport to the intestinal mucosa?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following steroid hormones is NOT considered a glucocorticoid?
Which of the following steroid hormones is NOT considered a glucocorticoid?
Signup and view all the answers
What primarily distinguishes lipids from other biomolecules?
What primarily distinguishes lipids from other biomolecules?
Signup and view all the answers
Which category of lipids serves as chemical messengers in the body?
Which category of lipids serves as chemical messengers in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is one of the main functions of triacylglycerols in living organisms?
What is one of the main functions of triacylglycerols in living organisms?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements about phospholipids is true?
Which of the following statements about phospholipids is true?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the biological significance of fats in the body?
What is the biological significance of fats in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipid type is categorized as a protective-coating lipid?
Which lipid type is categorized as a protective-coating lipid?
Signup and view all the answers
In which category of lipids would bile acids fall?
In which category of lipids would bile acids fall?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipid is noted for its role in participating in signal transduction pathways?
Which lipid is noted for its role in participating in signal transduction pathways?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of lipids are involved in the formation of micelles to aid in lipid absorption?
What type of lipids are involved in the formation of micelles to aid in lipid absorption?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a function of eicosanoids?
Which of the following is NOT a function of eicosanoids?
Signup and view all the answers
What hormone is characterized as a glucocorticoid and is known for suppressing inflammatory reactions?
What hormone is characterized as a glucocorticoid and is known for suppressing inflammatory reactions?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement accurately describes the structural characteristics of steroid hormones?
Which statement accurately describes the structural characteristics of steroid hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
Which effect is associated with the action of prostaglandins?
Which effect is associated with the action of prostaglandins?
Signup and view all the answers
What is produced as a result of saponification?
What is produced as a result of saponification?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following accurately describes the process of oxidation in triacylglycerols?
Which of the following accurately describes the process of oxidation in triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
What characterizes hydrolytic rancidity?
What characterizes hydrolytic rancidity?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of glycerophospholipids in cell membranes?
What is the primary role of glycerophospholipids in cell membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
What is the primary difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a characteristic of waxes?
Which of the following is a characteristic of waxes?
Signup and view all the answers
What occurs when double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids react with hydrogen gas?
What occurs when double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids react with hydrogen gas?
Signup and view all the answers
How are most soaps prepared today?
How are most soaps prepared today?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main chemical reaction associated with the breakdown of triacylglycerols in the body?
What is the main chemical reaction associated with the breakdown of triacylglycerols in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is classified as having three double bonds in its structure?
Which fatty acid is classified as having three double bonds in its structure?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect do trans fatty acids have on melting points compared to cis fatty acids?
What effect do trans fatty acids have on melting points compared to cis fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids is primarily found in phospholipids?
Which of the following fatty acids is primarily found in phospholipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic feature of polyunsaturated fatty acids?
What is a characteristic feature of polyunsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is commonly associated with corn oil?
Which fatty acid is commonly associated with corn oil?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the presence of cis double bonds affect the physical state of fatty acids at room temperature?
How does the presence of cis double bonds affect the physical state of fatty acids at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
What impact does chain length have on the solubility of fatty acids?
What impact does chain length have on the solubility of fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement is true regarding the melting points of saturated versus unsaturated fatty acids?
Which statement is true regarding the melting points of saturated versus unsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary reason for the partial hydrogenation of fats?
What is the primary reason for the partial hydrogenation of fats?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is known to have a structure characterized by four double bonds?
Which fatty acid is known to have a structure characterized by four double bonds?
Signup and view all the answers
What characterizes saturated fatty acids compared to unsaturated fatty acids?
What characterizes saturated fatty acids compared to unsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is associated with having a positive effect on heart disease risk?
Which fatty acid is associated with having a positive effect on heart disease risk?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes the solubility of fatty acids in water based on their chain length?
What distinguishes the solubility of fatty acids in water based on their chain length?
Signup and view all the answers
Which characteristic is true about a fatty acid with the notation 18:2?
Which characteristic is true about a fatty acid with the notation 18:2?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of fatty acid is typically solid at room temperature?
Which type of fatty acid is typically solid at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect does the presence of double bonds have on the melting point of fatty acids?
What effect does the presence of double bonds have on the melting point of fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is known as n-dodecanoic acid?
Which fatty acid is known as n-dodecanoic acid?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid primarily found in animal lipids is classified as saturated?
Which fatty acid primarily found in animal lipids is classified as saturated?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the structure of a saturated fatty acid differ from that of a monounsaturated fatty acid?
How does the structure of a saturated fatty acid differ from that of a monounsaturated fatty acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What is associated with the solubility behavior of fatty acids in water?
What is associated with the solubility behavior of fatty acids in water?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes lipids from other biomolecules?
What distinguishes lipids from other biomolecules?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following lipids serves as a building block for cellular membranes?
Which of the following lipids serves as a building block for cellular membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of fatty acids in biological systems?
What is the primary function of fatty acids in biological systems?
Signup and view all the answers
Which category of lipids includes steroids and eicosanoids?
Which category of lipids includes steroids and eicosanoids?
Signup and view all the answers
How do lipids contribute to the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins?
How do lipids contribute to the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do lipoproteins play in the body?
What role do lipoproteins play in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following describes the structure of phospholipids?
Which of the following describes the structure of phospholipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary source of metabolic fuel from fats?
What is the primary source of metabolic fuel from fats?
Signup and view all the answers
What state are saturated fatty acids typically found in at room temperature?
What state are saturated fatty acids typically found in at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is associated with a dietary decrease in heart disease risk?
Which fatty acid is associated with a dietary decrease in heart disease risk?
Signup and view all the answers
What characterizes the structural composition of saturated fatty acids?
What characterizes the structural composition of saturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
How do longer-chain fatty acids affect the pH of an aqueous solution?
How do longer-chain fatty acids affect the pH of an aqueous solution?
Signup and view all the answers
Which notation indicates the presence of double bonds in an unsaturated fatty acid?
Which notation indicates the presence of double bonds in an unsaturated fatty acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of fatty acid is typically liquid at room temperature?
What type of fatty acid is typically liquid at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a common source of myristic acid?
What is a common source of myristic acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What kind of fatty acids are indicated by a notation of 18:2?
What kind of fatty acids are indicated by a notation of 18:2?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is primarily found in animal tissues and is known for having 18 carbons?
Which fatty acid is primarily found in animal tissues and is known for having 18 carbons?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the effect of increasing carbon chain length in fatty acids on their solubility in water?
What is the effect of increasing carbon chain length in fatty acids on their solubility in water?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of leukotrienes in the body?
What is the primary role of leukotrienes in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the action of COX-2 inhibitors compared to conventional NSAIDs?
What is the action of COX-2 inhibitors compared to conventional NSAIDs?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic feature of eicosanoids related to inflammation?
What is a characteristic feature of eicosanoids related to inflammation?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a potential benefit of selective COX-2 inhibitors over traditional NSAIDs?
Which of the following is a potential benefit of selective COX-2 inhibitors over traditional NSAIDs?
Signup and view all the answers
What compound do NSAIDs primarily inhibit to achieve their therapeutic effects?
What compound do NSAIDs primarily inhibit to achieve their therapeutic effects?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of lipase in the human body?
What is the primary role of lipase in the human body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement best describes the process of saponification?
Which statement best describes the process of saponification?
Signup and view all the answers
What do the oxidation of triacylglycerols primarily lead to?
What do the oxidation of triacylglycerols primarily lead to?
Signup and view all the answers
Hydrolytic rancidity occurs mainly due to what factor?
Hydrolytic rancidity occurs mainly due to what factor?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a common characteristic of waxes?
What is a common characteristic of waxes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which class of lipids forms the bilayer matrix of biological membranes?
Which class of lipids forms the bilayer matrix of biological membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which process is involved in converting unsaturated fatty acids into saturated fatty acids?
Which process is involved in converting unsaturated fatty acids into saturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key function of phospholipids in cell membranes?
What is a key function of phospholipids in cell membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes the process of hydrolysis of triacylglycerols?
Which of the following best describes the process of hydrolysis of triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the impact of exposing fats and oils to air and moisture over time?
What is the impact of exposing fats and oils to air and moisture over time?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do bile acids play in lipid digestion?
What role do bile acids play in lipid digestion?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of hormones is primarily derived from cholesterol?
Which type of hormones is primarily derived from cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of prostaglandins?
What is the primary function of prostaglandins?
Signup and view all the answers
What characteristic is unique to eicosanoids compared to other hormones?
What characteristic is unique to eicosanoids compared to other hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
Which steroid hormone is known for promoting female sex characteristics?
Which steroid hormone is known for promoting female sex characteristics?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the effect of bile acids on fat-soluble vitamins in the intestine?
What is the effect of bile acids on fat-soluble vitamins in the intestine?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements is true about mineralocorticoids?
Which of the following statements is true about mineralocorticoids?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of fatty acid derivative is known for promoting platelet aggregation?
What type of fatty acid derivative is known for promoting platelet aggregation?
Signup and view all the answers
In what way do eicosanoids differ from traditional hormones?
In what way do eicosanoids differ from traditional hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
Which example of glucocorticoid is important for glucose synthesis and immune response suppression?
Which example of glucocorticoid is important for glucose synthesis and immune response suppression?
Signup and view all the answers
What defines a lipid in terms of solubility?
What defines a lipid in terms of solubility?
Signup and view all the answers
Which function does NOT describe the role of lipids?
Which function does NOT describe the role of lipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of leukotrienes in the body?
What is the primary role of leukotrienes in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
How do COX-2 inhibitors differ from conventional NSAIDs regarding their effects?
How do COX-2 inhibitors differ from conventional NSAIDs regarding their effects?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement accurately describes phospholipids?
Which statement accurately describes phospholipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic property of cholesterol?
What is a characteristic property of cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What impact do NSAIDs have on eicosanoid production?
What impact do NSAIDs have on eicosanoid production?
Signup and view all the answers
Which characteristic is true about leukotrienes?
Which characteristic is true about leukotrienes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following lipids is classified as a protective-coating lipid?
Which of the following lipids is classified as a protective-coating lipid?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of lipoproteins in the body?
What is the primary role of lipoproteins in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a significant clinical application of COX-2 inhibitors?
What is a significant clinical application of COX-2 inhibitors?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of fatty acid is most commonly found in biological systems?
Which type of fatty acid is most commonly found in biological systems?
Signup and view all the answers
Which function do messenger lipids primarily serve in the body?
Which function do messenger lipids primarily serve in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary structural characteristic of saturated fatty acids?
What is the primary structural characteristic of saturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is known to decrease the risk of heart disease?
Which fatty acid is known to decrease the risk of heart disease?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to the acidity of fatty acids as the chain length increases?
What happens to the acidity of fatty acids as the chain length increases?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is classified as a saturated fatty acid with 16 carbons?
Which fatty acid is classified as a saturated fatty acid with 16 carbons?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the solubility of fatty acids in water change with increasing chain length?
How does the solubility of fatty acids in water change with increasing chain length?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the notation 18:2 indicate in relation to an unsaturated fatty acid?
What does the notation 18:2 indicate in relation to an unsaturated fatty acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the typical state of saturated fatty acids at room temperature?
What is the typical state of saturated fatty acids at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements is true regarding the properties of unsaturated fatty acids?
Which of the following statements is true regarding the properties of unsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do conjugate bases of fatty acids play in near neutral pH environments?
What role do conjugate bases of fatty acids play in near neutral pH environments?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the predominant type of energy storage material found in human cells?
What is the predominant type of energy storage material found in human cells?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of triacylglycerol consists of three identical fatty acids?
Which type of triacylglycerol consists of three identical fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main characteristic of triglycerides?
What is the main characteristic of triglycerides?
Signup and view all the answers
What property do triglycerides exhibit due to the absence of electric charges?
What property do triglycerides exhibit due to the absence of electric charges?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of fats are predominantly liquid at room temperature?
Which type of fats are predominantly liquid at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
What is one of the primary roles of dietary fats in a balanced diet?
What is one of the primary roles of dietary fats in a balanced diet?
Signup and view all the answers
What chemical process involves the breaking of ester bonds in triacylglycerols?
What chemical process involves the breaking of ester bonds in triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of dietary fat is currently recommended to make up approximately 10% of total caloric intake?
What type of dietary fat is currently recommended to make up approximately 10% of total caloric intake?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a feature that distinguishes fats from oils?
What is a feature that distinguishes fats from oils?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of fatty acids are generally included in triglycerides?
What type of fatty acids are generally included in triglycerides?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the backbone structure of glycerophospholipids?
What is the backbone structure of glycerophospholipids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which phospholipid is commonly found in the inner leaflet of cell membranes?
Which phospholipid is commonly found in the inner leaflet of cell membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
What characterizes sphingomyelin among sphingolipids?
What characterizes sphingomyelin among sphingolipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do neutral glycosphingolipids play in the cell membrane?
What role do neutral glycosphingolipids play in the cell membrane?
Signup and view all the answers
Which glycerophospholipid is especially noted for its role in cell signaling?
Which glycerophospholipid is especially noted for its role in cell signaling?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a defining feature of gangliosides?
What is a defining feature of gangliosides?
Signup and view all the answers
Which dietary source is particularly high in phosphatidylcholine?
Which dietary source is particularly high in phosphatidylcholine?
Signup and view all the answers
How do sphingolipids differ in structure from glycerophospholipids?
How do sphingolipids differ in structure from glycerophospholipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of phosphatidylcholine in cell membranes?
What is the primary function of phosphatidylcholine in cell membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of lipid is primarily found in brain tissue, accounting for 7% of its dry mass?
What type of lipid is primarily found in brain tissue, accounting for 7% of its dry mass?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement correctly defines lipids?
Which statement correctly defines lipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary biological significance of fats?
What is the primary biological significance of fats?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes the function of bile acids in lipid absorption?
Which of the following best describes the function of bile acids in lipid absorption?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of lipid is classified as a membrane lipid?
Which type of lipid is classified as a membrane lipid?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following accurately describes the function of cholesterol?
Which of the following accurately describes the function of cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of hormone is specifically categorized as a lipid and is derived from cholesterol?
Which type of hormone is specifically categorized as a lipid and is derived from cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What role do lipoproteins play in the body?
What role do lipoproteins play in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary physiological effect of prostaglandins?
What is the primary physiological effect of prostaglandins?
Signup and view all the answers
Which property is common to both triglycerides and phospholipids?
Which property is common to both triglycerides and phospholipids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which hormone among the following primarily regulates ion balances in the body?
Which hormone among the following primarily regulates ion balances in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
How do eicosanoids exert their effects within the body?
How do eicosanoids exert their effects within the body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which class of lipids includes cholesterol and steroid hormones?
Which class of lipids includes cholesterol and steroid hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main characteristic of fatty acids?
What is the main characteristic of fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of cholesterol in human cell membranes?
What is the primary role of cholesterol in human cell membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
How much cholesterol is typically synthesized by the human liver each day?
How much cholesterol is typically synthesized by the human liver each day?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of food contains no cholesterol?
Which type of food contains no cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the ingestion of dietary cholesterol affect the body's cholesterol synthesis?
How does the ingestion of dietary cholesterol affect the body's cholesterol synthesis?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main function of lipoproteins in the body?
What is the main function of lipoproteins in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a common characteristic of saturated fatty acids?
What is a common characteristic of saturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What percentage of dry mass in nerve and brain tissue is cholesterol?
What percentage of dry mass in nerve and brain tissue is cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is known for its potential heart disease risk reduction?
Which fatty acid is known for its potential heart disease risk reduction?
Signup and view all the answers
What can result from a significant decrease in cholesterol synthesis without adequate dietary intake?
What can result from a significant decrease in cholesterol synthesis without adequate dietary intake?
Signup and view all the answers
What condition is caused by the accumulation of plaque around arteries due to excess cholesterol?
What condition is caused by the accumulation of plaque around arteries due to excess cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What occurs to the solubility of fatty acids as their chain length increases?
What occurs to the solubility of fatty acids as their chain length increases?
Signup and view all the answers
Which option describes the relationship of cholesterol with daily dietary requirements?
Which option describes the relationship of cholesterol with daily dietary requirements?
Signup and view all the answers
How are unsaturated fatty acids structurally indicated in notation?
How are unsaturated fatty acids structurally indicated in notation?
Signup and view all the answers
Which characteristic is NOT true for unsaturated fatty acids?
Which characteristic is NOT true for unsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of disorder is xanthomatosis associated with?
What type of disorder is xanthomatosis associated with?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is an example of a long-chain saturated fatty acid?
Which fatty acid is an example of a long-chain saturated fatty acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?
What distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the typical effect of increasing the number of double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids on their melting point?
What is the typical effect of increasing the number of double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids on their melting point?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids has 22 carbons and is categorized as a saturated fatty acid?
Which of the following fatty acids has 22 carbons and is categorized as a saturated fatty acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect does the presence of a terminal carboxylic acid group have on fatty acids?
What effect does the presence of a terminal carboxylic acid group have on fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipoprotein type has the lowest density and is primarily responsible for transporting dietary lipids?
Which lipoprotein type has the lowest density and is primarily responsible for transporting dietary lipids?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of bile acids in digestion?
What is the primary function of bile acids in digestion?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following components is NOT typically found in chylomicrons?
Which of the following components is NOT typically found in chylomicrons?
Signup and view all the answers
What characteristic of bile acids increases their solubility in water?
What characteristic of bile acids increases their solubility in water?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipoprotein has a density range between 1.006-1.063 g/ml and is associated with transporting cholesterol from the liver to peripheral tissues?
Which lipoprotein has a density range between 1.006-1.063 g/ml and is associated with transporting cholesterol from the liver to peripheral tissues?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of sterol is primarily found in animals, serving as a major component of biological membranes?
What type of sterol is primarily found in animals, serving as a major component of biological membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which molecule is conjugated with bile acids to increase their solubility and neutralize acidity?
Which molecule is conjugated with bile acids to increase their solubility and neutralize acidity?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main role of HDL (High-density lipoprotein) in lipid transport?
What is the main role of HDL (High-density lipoprotein) in lipid transport?
Signup and view all the answers
In which human organ are bile acids primarily synthesized from cholesterol?
In which human organ are bile acids primarily synthesized from cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following lipoproteins is primarily responsible for the transport of triglycerides from the liver to tissues?
Which of the following lipoproteins is primarily responsible for the transport of triglycerides from the liver to tissues?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of fatty acids have more than one carbon-carbon double bond?
What type of fatty acids have more than one carbon-carbon double bond?
Signup and view all the answers
What characteristic of fatty acids causes a decrease in melting point?
What characteristic of fatty acids causes a decrease in melting point?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fatty acids is known for being present in brain tissue?
Which of the following fatty acids is known for being present in brain tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the melting point of fatty acids change with chain length?
How does the melting point of fatty acids change with chain length?
Signup and view all the answers
Trans fatty acids are primarily produced through which process?
Trans fatty acids are primarily produced through which process?
Signup and view all the answers
Which fatty acid is classified as having 18 carbons and two double bonds?
Which fatty acid is classified as having 18 carbons and two double bonds?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect does an increase in the number of double bonds in a fatty acid chain have?
What effect does an increase in the number of double bonds in a fatty acid chain have?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a typical source of linolenic acid?
Which of the following is a typical source of linolenic acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main function of bile acids in the digestive system?
What is the main function of bile acids in the digestive system?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of hormone is classified as a lipid and acts as a chemical messenger?
Which type of hormone is classified as a lipid and acts as a chemical messenger?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following steroid hormones is known for regulating blood pressure and ion balances?
Which of the following steroid hormones is known for regulating blood pressure and ion balances?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key role of prostaglandins in the body?
What is a key role of prostaglandins in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
What characteristic do eicosanoids possess regarding their physiological effects?
What characteristic do eicosanoids possess regarding their physiological effects?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary energy storage material in human cells?
What is the primary energy storage material in human cells?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of triacylglycerol is formed from the esterification of glycerol with more than one kind of fatty acid?
Which type of triacylglycerol is formed from the esterification of glycerol with more than one kind of fatty acid?
Signup and view all the answers
What describes the general state of oils at room temperature?
What describes the general state of oils at room temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements about triglycerides is true?
Which of the following statements about triglycerides is true?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of dietary fat should comprise 10% of total fat intake according to current recommendations?
What type of dietary fat should comprise 10% of total fat intake according to current recommendations?
Signup and view all the answers
Which process involves the breaking of ester bonds in triacylglycerols?
Which process involves the breaking of ester bonds in triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic of triglycerides at body temperature?
What is a characteristic of triglycerides at body temperature?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following describes the main characteristic of triacylglycerols?
Which of the following describes the main characteristic of triacylglycerols?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the key distinction between fats and oils?
What is the key distinction between fats and oils?
Signup and view all the answers
What does hydrogenation of fats involve?
What does hydrogenation of fats involve?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of cholesterol in human cell membranes?
What is the primary role of cholesterol in human cell membranes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements about cholesterol synthesis is accurate?
Which of the following statements about cholesterol synthesis is accurate?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect does ingesting cholesterol have on its synthesis in the body?
What effect does ingesting cholesterol have on its synthesis in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of food is known to contain high levels of cholesterol?
Which type of food is known to contain high levels of cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of lipoproteins in the body?
What is the primary function of lipoproteins in the body?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following health conditions is NOT directly associated with cholesterol levels?
Which of the following health conditions is NOT directly associated with cholesterol levels?
Signup and view all the answers
What percentage of body cholesterol is typically found in nerve and brain tissue?
What percentage of body cholesterol is typically found in nerve and brain tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to cholesterol levels when it is consumed in the diet?
What happens to cholesterol levels when it is consumed in the diet?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement correctly describes the density of lipoproteins?
Which statement correctly describes the density of lipoproteins?
Signup and view all the answers
How much cholesterol is synthesized by the liver each day?
How much cholesterol is synthesized by the liver each day?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipoprotein type has a density of less than 0.95 g/ml?
Which lipoprotein type has a density of less than 0.95 g/ml?
Signup and view all the answers
Which component typically has the highest concentration in very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)?
Which component typically has the highest concentration in very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)?
Signup and view all the answers
What enhances the hydrophilicity and solubility of bile acids?
What enhances the hydrophilicity and solubility of bile acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which major sterol is primarily found in plants?
Which major sterol is primarily found in plants?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of bile acids in the digestive system?
What is the primary function of bile acids in the digestive system?
Signup and view all the answers
How are bile acids related to cholesterol?
How are bile acids related to cholesterol?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is true regarding low-density lipoproteins (LDL)?
Which of the following is true regarding low-density lipoproteins (LDL)?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary component of biological membranes in eukaryotes?
What is the primary component of biological membranes in eukaryotes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a significant chemical characteristic of bile acids?
What is a significant chemical characteristic of bile acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipoprotein is associated with the transport of dietary lipids from the intestines?
Which lipoprotein is associated with the transport of dietary lipids from the intestines?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- More than one carbon-carbon double bond
- Found in relatively minor amounts
- Omega 6 and Omega 3 are common examples
Common Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- Linoleic acid: cis-9-, cis-12-octadecadienoic acid, 18 carbons, found in corn oil, animal tissues, bacteria
- Linolenic acid: cis-9-, cis-12-, cis-15-octadecatrienoic acid, 18 carbons, found in animal tissues
- Arachidonic acid: 5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid, 20 carbons, found in liver, brain tissue
Trans Fatty Acids
- Minor product of animal and plant metabolism
- Produced synthetically by partial hydrogenation of fats and oils
- Increase melting point of dietary fats
- Favor freshness, give texture, improve stability
Fatty Acid Characteristics
- Melting point increases with increasing chain length
- Even-numbered saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than odd-numbered ones
- Increasing cis double bonds equals lower melting points
- Longer chains are less soluble
Space-Filling Molecules
- Amount of bends in a fatty acid chain increases with the number of double bonds
- Less packing occurs
- Lower melting point
- Tend to be liquids at room temperature
Energy-Storage Materials
- Triacylglycerols are the most widespread energy storage material in humans
- Triacylglycerols are concentrated primarily in special cells (adipocytes)
- Triacylglycerol hydrolysis is the reverse of esterification reaction
- Lipase, an enzyme produced by the pancreas, carries out triacylglycerol hydrolysis within the human body
Saponification
- Hydrolysis in basic solution produces salt of fatty acid and glycerol
- Most soap is prepared by hydrolyzing fats and oils under high pressure and temperature using sodium carbonate as a base
Oxidation
- Double bonds in triacylglycerols are subject to oxidation with oxygen in air
- Oxidation of alkenes can result in two short-chain molecules - an aldehyde or carboxylic acid
Rancidity
- Occurs when fats and oils are exposed to air, moisture, light, bacteria, etc.
- Hydrolytic rancidity occurs due to partial hydrolysis of triacylglycerol by bacterial enzymes
Hydrogenation of a Triacylglycerol
- Double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids react with hydrogen gas to produce carbon-carbon single bonds
Waxes
- Esters from long chain alcohol (fatty alcohol) and long chain carboxylic acid (fatty acid)
- Hydrophobic: Waxes are water-repellent and do not dissolve in water
- Solid at Room Temperature: Most waxes are solid at room temperatures.
- Low Melting Point: Waxes generally have relatively low melting points
Biological Membrane Lipids
- Three main classes form the bilayer matrix of biological membranes: glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and sterols (principally cholesterol)
Membrane Lipids: Phospholipids
- Up to 80% of a cell membrane's mass can be lipid materials
- Phospholipids dominate lipid materials in cell membranes
- Functions of phospholipids:
- Structural components of membranes.
- Help in electron transport.
- Absorb fat from the intestine.
- Absorb fat from the liver and prevent fat accumulation in the liver.
Triglycerides
- Store fatty acids in biological systems
- Almost all naturally occurring triglyceride molecules contain more than one type of fatty acid
Properties of Triglycerides
- Hydrophobic substances soluble only in some organic solvents
- Neutral lipids with no electric charges
- Melted triglycerides are generally quite viscous oils
- Most stored triglycerides are fluid at body temperature to permit rapid mobilization as an energy source
Types of Triacylglycerols
- Simple triacylglycerols: three identical fatty acids are esterified
- Mixed triacylglycerols: a triester formed from the esterification of glycerol with more than one kind of fatty acid
Difference of Fats and Oils
- Fats: Solids or semisolids at room temperature, primarily animal source, tasteless
- Oils: Liquids at room temperature, primarily plant and fish oil source
"Good Fats" versus "Bad Fats"
- Type and amount offat are important for a balanced diet
- Current recommended amounts
- Total fat intake in calories: 15%
- Monounsaturated fat: 10%
- Polyunsaturated fat: 10%
Chemical Reactions of Triacylglycerols
- Ester and alkene functional groups determine chemical properties
- Reactions:
- Hydrolysis
- Saponification
- Hydrogenation
Properties of Fatty Acids
- Undergo esterification and acid-base reactions
- Acidity does not vary greatly, indicated by pKa values
- Solubility in water decreases as chain length increases
- Exist as conjugate bases, like oleate, near neutral pH
Fatty Acids: Saturated versus Unsaturated
-
Saturated fatty acids:
- Bad cholesterol (low density lipoprotein)
- Solid at room temperature
-
Unsaturated fatty acids:
- Good cholesterol (high density lipoprotein)
- Liquid at room temperature
Saturated Fatty Acids
- Unbranched, linear chains of CH2 groups with one terminal carboxylic acid group
- The maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms are bonded to each carbon.
- Common Saturated Fatty Acids:
- Lauric acid: n-dodecanoic acid, 12 carbons, found in Palm kernel oil, nutmeg
- Myristic acid: n-tetradecanoic acid, 14 carbons, found in Palm kernel oil, nutmeg
- Palmitic acid: n-hexadecanoic acid, 16 carbons, found in Olive oil, animal lipids
- Stearic acid: n-octadecanoic acid, 18 carbons, found in Cocoa butter, animal lipids
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- Dietary effect: Decrease in heart disease risk
- Common Monounsaturated Fatty Acids:
- Palmitoleic acid: cis-9-hexadecenoic acid, 16 carbons, found in Marine algae, pine oil
- Oleic acid: cis-9-octadecenoic acid, 18 carbons, found in animal tissues, olive oil
- Gadoleic acid: cis-9-eicosenoic acid, 20 carbons, found in fish oils (cod, sardine)
Naming Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- Structural notation: Indicates the number of carbon atoms and the number of c-c double bonds present
- e.g., 18:2 – 18 carbons, 2 double bonds
- Delta notation: Specifies double-bond positioning within the carbon chain of an unsaturated fatty acid
- Add Greek capital letter delta (∆) followed by one or more superscript numbers
Leukotrienes
- C20-fatty-acid derivative containing three conjugated double bonds and hydroxyl groups
- Promote inflammatory and hypersensitivity (allergy) responses
Clinical Significance: NSAIDs
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): Inhibit COX enzymes, reducing the production of eicosanoids and relieving pain, inflammation, and fever.
Clinical Significance: COX-2 Inhibitors
- Selective inhibitors of COX-2 have been developed to reduce inflammation without the side effects associated with COX-1 inhibition.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- More than one carbon-carbon double bond
- Cis in nature
- Found in relatively minor amounts
- Omega 6 and Omega 3 are examples
Common Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- Linoleic acid: cis-9-, cis-12-octadecadienoic acid
- 18 carbons
- Found in corn oil, animal tissues, bacteria
- Linolenic acid: cis-9-, cis-12-, cis-15-octadecatrienoic acid
- 18 carbons
- Found in animal tissues
- 5,8,11-eicosatrienoic acid
- 20 carbons
- 8,11,14-eicosatrienoic acid
- 20 carbons
- Found in brain tissue
- 7,10,13-docosatrienoic acid
- 22 carbons
- Found in phospholipids
- 8,11,14-docosatrienoic acid
- 22 carbons
- Arachidonic acid: 5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid
- 20 carbons
- Found in liver, brain tissue
- 4,7,10,13-docosatetraenoic acid
- 22 carbons
- Found in brain tissue
- 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid
- 22 carbons
- Found in brain tissue
Trans Fatty Acids
- Minor product of animal and plant metabolism
- Produced synthetically by partial hydrogenation of fats and oils
- Used in the manufacture of margarine
- Increase melting point of dietary fats
- Improve freshness, texture, stability
Characteristics of Fatty Acids
- Melting point increases with increasing chain length
- Even-numbered saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than odd-numbered
- Increase in cis double bonds = lower melting point
- Longer the chain = less soluble it is
Space-Filling Molecules
- Number of bends in a fatty acid chain increase as the number of double bonds increase
- Less packing occurs
- Lower melting point
- Tend to be liquids at room temperature
Energy-Storage Materials
- Essential for the synthesis of lipoproteins
- Participate in blood
Glycerophospholipids
- Most abundant in biological membranes
- Composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate head group
Types of Glycerophospholipids
- Phosphatidylcholine: one of the most common phospholipids in cell membranes
- Phosphatidylethanolamine: another common phospholipid with a smaller head group
- Phosphatidylserine: carries a negative charge and is often found in the inner leaflet of the membrane
- Phosphatidylinositol: plays a role in cell signaling and membrane trafficking
Phosphatidylcholine
- Also known as lecithins
- Waxy solids that form colloidal suspensions in water
- Dietary sources: eggs yolk, soybeans
- Within body: prevalent/present in cell membrane
Sphingolipids
- A second major class of lipids associated with the cell membrane
- Based on an 18-carbon amine alcohol, sphingosine
- Sphingomyelin: a molecule with a phosphorylcholine group instead of the sugar moiety
- All sphingolipids have a fatty acid attached to the amino group of sphingosine
- Only sphingomyelin, a phospholipid, is a major component of biological membranes
Sphingoglycolipids
- Contain a sugar attached to carbon 1 of sphingosine
- Neutral glycosphingolipids: contain only neutral sugars and are found exclusively on the external surface of the cell membrane
- Sugar moieties often act as antigens and as receptors for hormones and other signaling molecules
- Occur primarily in brain (7% of dry mass)
Gangliosides
- Contain one or more sialic acid residues linked to the sugar
- More complex form of sphingoglycolipid
- Contains a branched chain of up to 7 monosaccharide residues
- Gray matter of the brain
Cerebrosides
- The simplest form of sphingoglycolipids
- Contain a single monosaccharide unit either glucose or galactose
- Occur primarily in the brain
- Also present in myelin sheath
Cholesterol
- Light yellow crystalline solid
- Soluble in chloroform and other fat solvents
- Polyunsaturated acids – lower the plasma cholesterol level
- Most abundant lipid in the human body
- Synthesized in the liver, adrenal cortex, intestines, testes and skin
- Play an important role as a component of biomembranes and has a modulating effect on the fluid state
Cholesterol Function
- Important tissue component (modulating effect, integrity & permeability)
- Play an important role in insulating nerves and brain structure
- For transport of fatty acids in the body
- It is a part of lipoproteins
- Neutralizes the hemolytic action of various agents such as venom, bacterial toxins
- Gives rise to “provitamin D”
- It is a precursor of cholic acid in the body as also bile salts.
- Micelle formation: Bile acids form mixed micelles with fatty acids, glycerol, and other lipids. These micelles transport lipids to the intestinal mucosa for absorption.
- Absorption of lipids: Bile acids facilitate the absorption of dietary fats, fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K), and cholesterol from the small intestine.
- Stimulation of bile flow: Bile acids can stimulate the secretion of more bile by the liver, enhancing fat digestion and absorption.
Hormones
- Biochemical substance produced by a ductless gland that has a messenger function.
- Hormones serve as a means of communication between various tissues.
- Some hormones are lipids.
- Lipids that play the role of “chemical messengers” include:
- Steroid hormones – derivatives of cholesterol
- Eicosanoids- derivatives of arachidonic acid
Steroid Hormones
- Group of lipids that have fused-ring structure of 3 six-membered rings, and1 five-membered ring.
Examples of Steroid Hormones
- Progestins (active during pregnancy). Progesterone.
- Glucocorticoids (promoting the synthesis of glucose and suppressing inflammatory reactions). Cortisol.
- Mineralocorticoids (regulating ion balances). Aldosterone (Na+, K+, blood pressure).
- Estrogens (promoting female sex characteristics). Estradiol.
- Androgens (promoting male sex characteristics). Testosterone.
Messenger Lipids: Eicosanoids
- Arachidonic acid (20:4) derivatives:
- Have profound physiological effects at extremely low concentrations.
- Eicosanoids are hormone-like molecules.
- Exert their effects in the tissues where they are synthesized.
- Usually have a very short “life.”
Prostaglandins
- C20-fatty-acid derivative
- Containing cyclopentane ring and oxygen-containing functional groups
- Involved in:
- Raising body temperature
- Inhibiting the secretion of gastric juices
- Increasing the secretion of a protective mucus layer into the stomach
- Relaxing and contracting smooth muscle
- Directing water and electrolyte balance
- Intensifying pain
- Enhancing inflammation responses
Thromboxanes
- C20-fatty-acid derivative
- Containing a cyclic ether ring and oxygen-containing functional groups
- Promote platelet aggregation.
Leukotrienes
- C20-fatty-acid derivative containing three conjugated double bonds and hydroxyl groups
- Promote inflammatory and hypersensitivity (allergy) responses
Clinical Significance
-
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs):
- Inhibit COX enzymes, reducing the production of eicosanoids and relieving pain, inflammation, and fever.
-
COX-2 inhibitors:
- Selective inhibitors of COX-2 have been developed to reduce inflammation without the side effects associated with COX-1 inhibition.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- Contain more than one carbon-carbon double bond
- The double bond has a cis configuration
- Found in relatively minor amounts
- Omega 6 and Omega 3 are common examples
- Linoleic acid (18 carbons) is found in corn oil, animal tissue and bacteria
- Linolenic acid (18 carbons) is found in animal tissue
- Arachidonic acid (20 carbons) is found in liver and brain tissue
Trans Fatty Acids
- Minor product of animal and plant metabolism
- Produced synthetically during the partial hydrogenation of fats and oils
- Most commonly used method to increase the melting point of dietary fats
- Improves freshness, texture and stability
Characteristics of Fatty Acids
- Melting point increases with increasing chain length
- Even-numbered saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than odd-numbered fatty acids.
- Increasing cis double bonds lowers the melting point
- Longer chain lengths lead to lower solubility
Space-Filling Molecules
- Amount of bends in a fatty acid chain increase with increasing number of double bonds
- Less packing occurs because of these bends
- This results in a lower melting point
- Tends to be liquids at room temperature
Energy-Storage Materials
- Oxidation is the breakdown of molecules
- Hydrolysis of triacylglycerol is the opposite of esterification
- Breaks 1-2 ester bonds to generate mono- or diacylglycerol and fatty acids
- In the human body, this is carried out by pancreatic enzymes called lipases
Saponification
- Hydrolysis of fats and oils in a basic solution
- Produces salt of fatty acid and glycerol
- Modern soap is prepared by hydrolyzing fats and oils with sodium carbonate under pressure and temperature
- Coconut oil and animal fat are common sources
Oxidation
- Double bonds in triacylglycerols are susceptible to oxidation by oxygen in air
- Leads to breaking of the carbon-carbon bond
- Oxidation of alkenes can produce aldehydes or carboxylic acids
Rancidity
- Occurs when fats and oils are exposed to air, moisture, light, bacteria, etc.
- Hydrolytic rancidity is caused by partial hydrolysis of triacylglycerol by bacterial enzymes
Hydrogenation of a Triacylglycerol
- Double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids react with hydrogen gas to produce carbon-carbon single bonds.
- Unsaturated fatty acids can be converted to saturated fatty acids through hydrogenation
Waxes
- Esters created by long chain alcohols (fatty alcohols) and long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acids)
- Hydrophobic, does not dissolve in water
- Solid at room temperature
- Have low melting points
Biological Membrane Lipids
- The bilayer matrix of biological membranes is comprised of glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and sterols (primarily cholesterol)
Membrane Lipids: Phospholipids
- All cells are surrounded by a membrane that confines their contents
- Up to 80% of the mass of a cell membrane can be lipid materials, and these lipid materials are dominated by phospholipids
- Structural components of membranes
- Help in electron transport
- Help absorb fat from the intestine
- Help absorb fat from the liver and prevent fat accumulation in the liver
- Contribute to the formation of sex hormones
Functions of Cholesterol
- Essential for many bodily processes, including:
- Cell membranes
- Nerve and brain tissue
- Hormone synthesis
- Vitamin production
- Can lead to health problems if levels are too high, including:
- Atherosclerosis
- Diabetes mellitus
- Hyperthyroidism
- Xanthomatosis
- Obstructive jaundice
- Nephrotic Syndrome
Cholesterol
- Found in cell membranes, nerve tissue, and brain tissue
- Important for the synthesis of hormones and vitamins
- About 25% of cell membrane mass is cholesterol
- About 10% of nerve and brain tissue dry mass is cholesterol
- Typically 50mg of cholesterol is found in 100 ml of blood plasma, and around 170mg is esterified with fatty acids
- Most cholesterol is biosynthesized by the liver and intestine
- Approximately 800-1000mg of cholesterol is synthesized each day
Cholesterol in Food
- The liver synthesizes approximately 1 g of cholesterol per day
- It is not necessary to consume cholesterol in diet
- Cholesterol synthesis decreases if it is ingested
- Animal food contains high amounts of cholesterol
- Plant food does not contain cholesterol
- If cholesterol intake is not reduced sufficiently, it can lead to cardiovascular disease
Lipoproteins
- Conjugated proteins involved in the transport and delivery of lipids to tissues
- Carry lipids (cholesterol & triglycerides) along with water soluble carrier proteins
- Transport neutral lipids in the blood
- Have a lower density than ordinary protein molecules
- Form micelles with bile acids, fatty acids, glycerol and other lipids
- Micelles transport these lipids to the intestinal mucosa for absorption
- Bile acids help absorb dietary fats, fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and cholesterol from the small intestine
- Stimulates the liver to produce more bile, enhancing fat digestion and absorption
Hormones
- Biochemical messengers produced by ductless glands
- Facilitate communication between tissues
- Some hormones are lipids, including:
- Steroid hormones (derived from cholesterol)
- Eicosanoids (derivatives from arachidonic acid)
Steroid Hormones
- Lipids with a fused-ring structure of three six-membered rings, and one five-membered ring
- Examples of steroid hormones include:
- Progestins (active during pregnancy) - Progesterone
- Glucocorticoids (promote glucose synthesis and suppress inflammation) - Cortisol
- Mineralocorticoids (regulate ion balances) - Aldosterone (regulates sodium, potassium, and blood pressure)
- Estrogens (promote female sex characteristics) - Estradiol
- Androgens (promote male sex characteristics) - Testosterone
Messenger Lipids: Eicosanoids
- Derivatives of arachidonic acid (20:4)
- Have profound physiological effects at extremely low concentrations
- Hormone-like molecules that exert their effects in the tissues they are synthesized
- Short lifespan
Prostaglandins
- C20-fatty acid derivative containing a cyclopentane ring and oxygen-containing functional groups
- Functions include:
- Raising body temperature
- Inhibiting the secretion of gastric juices
- Increasing the secretion of protective mucus in the stomach
- Relaxing and contracting smooth muscle
- Directing water and electrolyte balance
- Intensifying pain
- Enhancing inflammatory responses
Thromboxanes
- C20-fatty acid derivative containing a cyclic ether ring and oxygen-containing functional groups
- Promote platelet aggregation
Leukotrienes
- C20-fatty acid derivative containing three conjugated double bonds and hydroxyl groups
- Promote inflammatory and hypersensitivity (allergy) responses
Clinical Significance
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit COX enzymes, reducing the production of eicosanoids and relieving pain, inflammation, and fever
- COX-2 inhibitors are selective inhibitors of COX-2 that reduce inflammation without the side effects associated with COX-1 inhibition.
Lipids
- Lipids are organic compounds found in living organisms that are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents.
- Lipids do not have a common structural feature.
Biological Significance of Fats
- Lipids serve as energy storage, thermal insulation, metabolic fuels, membrane components, emulsifying agents in digestion and absorption of lipids, and precursors of vitamins A, C, D, E, and K.
Chemical Composition of Fats
- Most biological fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms.
- The negatively charged carboxylate group of fatty acids is hydrophilic, while the rest of the molecule is hydrophobic.
Physical Properties of Fats
- The melting point of fatty acids increases with increasing chain length.
- Even-numbered saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than odd-numbered ones.
- Increase in cis double bonds reduces the melting point, while longer chains decrease solubility.
Chemical Properties of Fats
- Fatty acids undergo esterification and acid-base reactions.
- The solubility of fatty acids in water decreases as chain length increases.
- The even-numbered saturated fatty acids have higher melting points than the odd-numbered ones.
- Increase in cis double bonds reduces the melting point, while longer chains decrease solubility.
- The acidities of fatty acids do not vary greatly due to their pKa values.
Classification of Lipids
- Lipids can be classified into five categories: energy-storage lipids, membrane lipids, emulsification lipids, chemical messenger lipids, and protective-coating lipids.
Fatty Acids
- Most biological fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms.
- They can be saturated or unsaturated, with saturated fatty acids linked by carbon-carbon single bonds, while unsaturated ones contain carbon-carbon double bonds.
Saturated Fatty Acids
- Saturated fatty acids are usually solid at room temperature.
- They are associated with "bad cholesterol" (low-density lipoprotein).
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
- Unsaturated fatty acids are usually liquid at room temperature.
- They are associated with "good cholesterol" (high-density lipoprotein).
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- Monounsaturated fatty acids have one double bond in their molecule and can reduce the risk of heart disease.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- Polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond and are essential for human health.
- They are categorized into Omega 6 and Omega 3 fatty acids.
Trans Fatty Acids
- Trans fatty acids are produced synthetically by partial hydrogenation of fats and oils.
- They are associated with an increased risk of heart disease.
Triacylglycerols
- Triacylglycerols are esters of glycerol with three fatty acids.
- They are the main form of energy storage in animals and plants.
- Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols breaks down the ester bonds, producing glycerol and fatty acids.
- Saponification is the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in a basic solution, producing salts of fatty acids and glycerol.
Waxes
- Waxes are esters of long-chain alcohols and long-chain fatty acids.
- They are hydrophobic and solid at room temperature.
- They have a low melting point.
Membrane Lipids: Phospholipids
- They are the main component of cell membranes.
- They form a bilayer structure, with their hydrophilic heads facing outward and their hydrophobic tails facing inward.
- Phospholipids play essential roles in cell signaling, cell growth, and membrane fluidity.
Cholesterol
- Cholesterol is a steroid, a type of lipid with a fused ring structure.
- It is essential for cell membrane integrity and is a precursor for steroid hormones.
- High levels of cholesterol in the blood can increase the risk of heart disease.
Lipoproteins
- Lipoproteins are complexes of lipids and proteins that transport lipids in the bloodstream.
- Different types of lipoproteins have different densities and functions.
Messenger Lipids
- Messenger lipids, also known as signaling lipids, are involved in cell communication and regulation.
- They include steroid hormones and eicosanoids.
Steroid Hormones
- Steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol.
- They regulate a wide range of biological processes, including growth, development, and metabolism.
- Examples of steroid hormones include estrogen, testosterone, cortisol, and aldosterone.
Eicosanoids
- Eicosanoids are synthesized from arachidonic acid.
- They exert their effects locally in the tissues where they are synthesized.
- They have a short lifespan and play critical roles in inflammation, pain, and blood clotting.
- Examples of eicosanoids include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes.
Lipids
- Lipids are organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents.
- They are essential for life, playing important roles in energy storage, structure of membranes, hormonal function, and more.
Composition of Lipids
- Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- They can also contain other elements like phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Five Categories of Lipids
- Energy-storage lipids: Triacylglycerols are the most common type of energy-storage lipids.
- Membrane lipids: Phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids, and cholesterol are the main components of biological membranes.
- Emulsification lipids: Bile acids are important for the digestion and absorption of fats.
- Chemical messenger lipids: Steroid hormones and eicosanoids are chemical messengers produced by the body.
- Protective-coating lipids: Biological waxes protect organisms from water and other environmental hazards.
Functions of Lipids
- Energy storage: Lipids provide a concentrated form of energy.
- Thermal insulation: Lipids help to insulate the body and maintain body temperature.
- Membrane components: Phospholipids and other lipids form the structural basis of cell membranes.
- Hormones: Steroid hormones and eicosanoids play roles in regulating various bodily functions.
- Vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble and require lipids for their absorption.
- Surfactants: Lipids are used as surfactants in the lungs to reduce surface tension.
- Nervous system: Lipids are essential for the structure and function of the nervous system.
Classification of Lipids
- Fatty acids: The building blocks of many lipids, fatty acids are long chains of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group at one end. They can be saturated (no double bonds) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
Saturated Fatty Acids
- They are linear chains with no double bonds.
- They are usually solid at room temperature and are associated with a higher risk of heart disease.
- Examples: Lauric acid, Myristic acid, Palmitic acid, Stearic acid
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- They contain one double bond in their structure.
- Usually liquid at room temperature and are associated with a lower risk of heart disease.
- Examples: Palmitoleic acid, Oleic acid, Gadoleic acid, Erucic acid, Nervonic acid.
Triacylglycerols
- Formed by a glycerol molecule linked to three fatty acid molecules.
- Major form of energy storage in animals.
- Can be solid (fats) or liquid (oils) at room temperature depending on the type and amount of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerol
- Breaking of the ester bonds in triacylglycerols, releasing glycerol and fatty acids.
- This process is important for the digestion and absorption of fats.
Saponification
- Hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in basic solution, leading to the production of soap (salts of fatty acids) and glycerol.
Oxidation of Lipids
- Double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids can be oxidized by oxygen in the air, leading to rancidity (unpleasant taste and smell).
Hydrogenation of Lipids
- Unsaturated fatty acids can be converted to saturated fatty acids by adding hydrogen using catalysis.
- This process is used in the production of margarine and other partially hydrogenated oils.
Waxes
- Esters formed between long-chain alcohols and long-chain fatty acids.
- Hydrophobic and solid at room temperature, providing protective coatings for plants and animals.
Biological Membrane Lipids
- Glycerophospholipids: Contain a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.
- Sphingolipids: Contain a sphingosine backbone, one fatty acid chain, and a phosphate group.
- Sterols: Steroids with a hydroxyl group, these lipids are important for maintaining the fluidity of membranes.
Phospholipids
- Key components of cell membranes, forming a bilayer structure with their hydrophilic heads facing the aqueous environment and hydrophobic tails facing inwards.
- Play roles in electron transport, fat absorption, and micelle formation.
Cholesterol
- A sterol that plays a crucial role in cell membrane structure, hormone production, and vitamin D synthesis.
- High levels of LDL cholesterol (bad cholesterol) are associated with a higher risk of heart disease.
Hormones
- Chemical messengers produced by the body to regulate various functions.
- Some hormones are lipids, including steroid hormones and eicosanoids.
Steroid Hormones
- Derivatives of cholesterol.
- Include: Progesterone, Cortisol, Aldosterone, Estradiol, Testosterone.
- Each hormone has a specific function in the body, related to sexual development, metabolism, and other vital processes.
Eicosanoids
- Derivatives of arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid.
- Include: Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, Leukotrienes.
- These hormone-like molecules are involved in inflammation, blood clotting, pain sensation, and many other physiological processes.
Prostaglandins
- Involved in regulating a wide range of physiological functions, including raising body temperature, inhibiting gastric acid secretion, relaxing and contracting smooth muscles, and influencing pain and inflammation.
Thromboxanes
- Promote platelet aggregation, which is a key step in blood clotting.
Leukotrienes
- Contribute to inflammatory and hypersensitivity (allergy) responses.
Clinical Significance
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit COX enzymes, reducing eicosanoid production and relieving pain, inflammation, and fever.
- COX-2 inhibitors are selective inhibitors of COX-2, aimed at reducing inflammation without the side effects associated with COX-1 inhibition.
Lipids
- Organic compounds found in living organisms.
- Insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents.
- They do not have a common structural feature.
Five Categories of Lipids
- Energy storage lipids (triacylglycerols)
- Membrane lipids (phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids, and cholesterol)
- Emulsification Lipids (bile acids)
- Chemical messenger lipids (steroid hormones and eicosanoids)
- Protective coating lipids (biological waxes)
Functions of Lipids
- Energy storage (as triacylglycerol)
- Thermal insulation
- Membrane components
- Emulsifying agents in digestion and absorption of lipids
- Hormones (steroids and vitamin D metabolites)
- Precursors of prostanoids and leukotrienes
- Surfactants in the alveolar membrane
- Participation in signal transduction pathways
Classification of Lipids
- Fatty acids
- Triglycerides
- Steroids
Fatty Acids
- Structural components of all lipids.
- Most biological fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms.
- The negatively charged carboxylate is hydrophilic.
- Fatty acids undergo esterification and acid-base reactions.
Saturated Fatty Acids
- Unbranched, linear chains of CH2 groups linked by carbon-carbon single bonds with one terminal carboxylic acid group.
- The maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms are bonded to each carbon of the molecule.
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- Dietary effect is a decrease in heart disease risk
Triglycerides
- Store fatty acids in biological systems.
- Almost all naturally occurring triglyceride molecules contain more than one type of fatty acid.
Two Types of Triacylglycerols
- Simple triacylglycerols: Three identical fatty acids are esterified.
- Mixed triacylglycerols: A triester formed from the esterification of glycerol with more than one kind of fatty acid.
Difference of Fats and Oils
- Fats: Solids or semisolids at room temperature, predominantly saturated, source - animal.
- Oils: Predominantly liquids at room temperature, unsaturated, source - plant and fish oil.
Glycerophospholipids
- Most abundant in biological membranes.
- They are composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate head group.
Sphingolipids
- A second major class of lipids associated with the cell membrane.
- Are based on an 18-carbon amine alcohol, sphingosine.
- All sphingolipids have, in addition to the sugar, a fatty acid attached to the amino group of sphingosine.
Sphingomyelin
- A phospholipid that is a major component of biological membranes.
Gangliosides
- Contain one or more sialic acid residues linked to the sugar.
Leukotrienes
- C20-fatty-acid derivative containing three conjugated double bonds and hydroxyl groups.
- Promote inflammatory and hypersensitivity (allergy) responses.
Clinical Significance
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): Inhibit COX enzymes, reducing the production of eicosanoids and relieving pain, inflammation, and fever.
- COX-2 inhibitors: Selective inhibitors of COX-2 have been developed to reduce inflammation without the side effects associated with COX-1 inhibition.
Lipids
- Lipids are organic compounds found in living organisms, insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents.
- Lipids do not have a common structural feature.
Biological Significance of Fats
- Lipids are essential for energy storage.
- Thermal insulation provided by fats.
- Fats are metabolic fuels.
- Fats serve as membrane components.
- Fats have emulsifying properties important in digestion and absorption.
- Lipids are important in the synthesis of hormones, vitamins, and other metabolites.
- Fats are surfactants in the alveolar membrane in the lungs.
- Lipids participate in signal transduction pathways.
- Fats are essential in cell wall and mitochondria constituents.
- Lipids have an insulating effect.
- Fats provide padding and protection to internal organs.
- Fats are considered a source of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
- Lipids are important for the nervous system.
- Fats are a crucial source of essential fatty acids.
Composition of Lipids
- Lipids are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- Some lipids also contain phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Types of Lipids
- Five main categories of lipids:
- Energy storage lipids: Triacylglycerols
- Membrane lipids: Phospholipids, Sphingoglycolipids, and Cholesterol
- Emulsification lipids: Bile acids
- Chemical messenger lipids: Steroid hormones and Eicosanoids
- Protective lipids: Biological waxes
Fatty Acids
- Fatty acids are the structural components of all lipids.
- Most biological fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms.
- Fatty acids are water-insoluble but have a hydrophilic carboxylate group.
- Fatty acids undergo esterification and acid-base reactions.
- The solubility of fatty acids in water decreases as the chain length increases.
Fatty Acids: Saturated vs. Unsaturated
-
Saturated fatty acids:
- Associated with "bad" cholesterol (LDL).
- Solid at room temperature.
-
Unsaturated fatty acids:
- Associated with "good" cholesterol (HDL).
- Liquid at room temperature.
Saturated Fatty Acids
- Unbranched, linear chains of CH2 groups linked by carbon-carbon single bonds.
- Have a terminal carboxylic acid group.
- Contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms bonded to each carbon.
- Examples:
- Lauric acid, Myristic acid, Palmitic acid, Stearic acid, Behenic acid, Lignoceric acid.
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- Contain one carbon-carbon double bond.
- Associated with a decrease in heart disease risk.
- Examples:
- Palmitoleic acid, Oleic acid, Gadoleic acid, Erucic acid, Nervonic acid.
Naming Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- Structural notation: indicates the number of carbon atoms and double bonds.
- Example: 18:2 (18 carbons, 2 double bonds)
- Delta (∆) notation: specifies the position of double bonds within the carbon chain.
Functions of Cholesterol
- Cholesterol is crucial for cell membranes, nerve tissue, and brain tissue.
- Involved in the synthesis of hormones and vitamins essential for life.
- Cholesterol is synthesized by the liver and intestine.
- Cholesterol in food:
- Liver synthesizes cholesterol, so dietary intake isn't essential.
- Ingesting cholesterol can reduce synthesis but may lead to cardiovascular disease.
- Animal foods are high in cholesterol, while plant foods contain no cholesterol.
Lipoproteins
- Conjugated proteins responsible for transporting and delivering lipids to tissues.
- Transport neutral lipids in the blood.
- Have a lower density than ordinary protein molecules.
Lipoprotein Classes Based on Density
- Chylomicrons: Highest lipid content, lowest density.
- Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL): High triglyceride content.
- Low-density lipoproteins (LDL): Primarily carry cholesterol.
- High-density lipoproteins (HDL): High protein content, "good" cholesterol.
Distribution of Lipoproteins in Body Tissues
- Lipids are distributed across various tissues like the nucleus, cell membranes, plasma, etc.
Sterols
- Major components of biological membranes in eukaryotes.
- Cholesterol is the primary sterol in animals, while ergosterol is the main sterol in fungi and sitosterol in plants.
Bile Acids
- Derived from cholesterol.
- Increase hydrophilicity and solubility in water.
- Often conjugated with glycine or taurine to enhance solubility and neutralization.
-
Functions:
- Emulsification: breaks down fat droplets into micelles.
- Micelle formation: transports lipids to the intestinal mucosa.
- Absorption of lipids: facilitates absorption of dietary fats, fat-soluble vitamins, and cholesterol.
- Stimulates bile flow: enhances fat digestion and absorption.
Hormones
- Biochemical messengers produced by ductless glands.
- Some hormones are lipids.
- Lipid hormones:
- Steroid hormones: Derivatives of cholesterol.
- Eicosanoids: Derivatives of arachidonic acid.
Steroid Hormones
- Have a fused-ring structure: 3 six-membered rings, 1 five-membered ring.
- Examples:
- Progestins: Active during pregnancy.
- Glucocorticoids: Promote glucose synthesis, suppress inflammation.
- Mineralocorticoids: Regulate ion balance, blood pressure.
- Estrogens: Promote female characteristics.
- Androgens: Promote male characteristics.
Messenger Lipids: Eicosanoids
- Derivatives of arachidonic acid (20:4).
- Have profound physiological effects at low concentrations.
- Function as hormone-like molecules that act locally.
- Generally have a short lifespan.
Prostaglandins
- 20-carbon fatty acid derivatives containing a cyclopentane ring.
- Involved in:
- Raising body temperature.
- Inhibiting gastric juice secretion.
- Increasing protective mucus production in the stomach.
- Relaxing and contracting smooth muscles.
- Regulating water and electrolyte balance.
- Intensifying pain.
- Enhancing inflammation responses.
Thromboxanes
- 20-carbon fatty acid derivatives containing a cyclic ether ring.
- Promote platelet aggregation.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
- Have more than one carbon-carbon double bond
- Occur naturally in cis conformation
- Found in relatively small amounts
- Omega 6 and Omega 3 are two examples
- Linoleic acid is a common example with 18 carbons
- Arachidonic acid has 20 carbons which are found in liver and brain tissue
Trans Fatty Acids
- Minor products of animal and plant metabolism
- Produced synthetically by partial hydrogenation of fats and oils during the manufacture of margarine
- Used to increase melting point of dietary fats, improve freshness, texture, and stability
Characteristics of Fatty Acids
- The melting point of fatty acids increases with increasing chain length
- The even-numbered saturated fatty acids have a higher melting point than the odd-numbered
- Increase in cis double bonds decreases melting point
- Longer chains are less soluble
Space-Filling Molecules
- The amount of bends in a fatty acid chain increases as the number of double bonds increases
- This leads to less packing and a lower melting point
- They tend to be liquids at room temperature
Energy Storage Materials
- Human cells store small amounts of energy-providing materials, except for nerve cells
- Carbohydrate glycogen is the most widespread energy storage material present in small amounts
- The storage material is triacylglycerols
- Triacylglycerols are concentrated primarily in special cells called adipocytes
Triglycerides
- Nearly all naturally occurring triglyceride molecules contain more than one type of fatty acid
- Almost all naturally occurring triglyceride molecules contain more than one type of fatty acid.
Properties of Triglycerides
- Hydrophobic substances that are soluble in some organic solvents
- Possess no electrical charges which makes them neutral lipids
- Melted triglycerides are generally quite viscous oils
- Most stored triglycerides are fluid at body temperature to permit their rapid mobilization as an energy source
Two Types of Triacylglycerols
- Simple triacylglycerols: three identical fatty acids are esterified
- Mixed triacylglycerols: a triester formed from the esterification of glycerol with more than one kind of fatty acid
Difference Between Fats and Oils
- Fats are solids or semisolid at room temperature
- Fats are primarily sourced from animals
- Oils are liquids at room temperature
- Oils are primarily sourced from plants and fish oil
"Good Fats" Versus "Bad Fats"
- Studies indicate that the type of dietary fat and the amount of dietary fat are important for a balanced diet
- Current recommended amounts are: total fat intake in calories: 15% - monounsaturated fat 10% - polyunsaturated
Chemical Reactions of Triacylglycerols
- Two functional groups: esters and alkenes
- Hydrolysis and saponification are two chemical reactions
Functions of Cholesterol
- Important in human cell membranes, nerve tissue and brain tissue
- Important in chemical synthesis: hormones, vitamins essential for life
- Cell membranes: 25% by mass
- Nerve and brain tissue: 10% by dry mass
- Blood plasma (every 100 ml): 50 mg and about 170 mg of cholesterol esterified with various fatty acids
- Most cholesterol is biosynthesized by the liver and the intestine
- About 800-1000 mg each day are synthesized
Cholesterol in Food
- Liver synthesizes cholesterol: ~ 1g everyday
- Cholesterol is not necessary to consume in the form of diet
- Cholesterol synthesis decreases if it is ingested
- Reduction is not sufficient and can lead to cardiovascular disease
- Animal food: lot of cholesterol
- Plant food: no cholesterol
Lipoproteins
- Conjugated proteins involved in transport and delivery of lipids to tissues.
- Examples: Lipids (Cholesterol & triglycerides) + water-soluble carrier proteins
- Transport neutral lipids in the blood
- Lower density than ordinary protein molecules
Lipoproteins According to Density
- The density of a lipoprotein can be used to classify it, with differences in the amount of protein, triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids present.
Distribution of Lipoproteins in Body Tissues
- Lipoproteins are present in different locations in the body, including the nucleus, cell membranes, plasma, and more.
Sterols
- Major components of biological membranes in eukaryotes but are rare in prokaryotes
- Cholesterol is the principal sterol in animals, whereas the major sterol in fungi is ergosterol and that in plants is sitosterol
Structure of Bile Acids
- Derived from cholesterol (steroid lipid)
- Contain multiple hydroxyl groups that increase hydrophilicity and solubility in water
- Conjugated with glycine or taurine to further increase their solubility and neutralize acidic properties
Function of Bile Acids
- Emulsification: reduce the surface tension of fat droplets, breaking them down into smaller micelles. This increases the surface area for digestion
- Micelle formation: form mixed micelles with fatty acids, glycerol, and other lipids, transporting lipids to the intestinal mucosa for absorption
- Absorption of lipids: facilitate the absorption of dietary fats, fat-soluble vitamins, and cholesterol from the small intestine
- Stimulation of bile flow: stimulate the secretion of more bile by the liver, enhancing fat digestion and absorption
Hormones
- Biochemical substances produced by a ductless gland that have a messenger function
- Serve as a means of communication between various tissues
- Some hormones are lipids, including steroid hormones and eicosanoids.
Steroid Hormones
- Group of lipids with a fused-ring structure of 3 six-membered rings, and 1 five-membered ring.
Examples of Steroid Hormones
- Progestins (active during pregnancy)
- Glucocorticoids (promote glucose synthesis and suppress inflammation)
- Mineralocorticoids (regulate ion balance)
- Estrogens (promote female sex characteristics)
- Androgens (promote male sex characteristics)
Messenger Lipids: Eicosanoids
- Derived from arachidonic acid (20:4)
- Have profound physiological effects at extremely low concentrations.
- Eicosanoids are hormone-like molecules
- Exert their effects in the tissues where they are synthesized
- Eicosanoids usually have a very short “life.”
Prostaglandins
- C20-fatty-acid derivative containing a cyclopentane ring and oxygen-containing functional groups
- Involved in raising body temperature, inhibiting gastric juice secretion, increasing protective mucus secretion in the stomach, relaxing and contracting smooth muscle, directing water and electrolyte balance, intensifying pain, and enhancing inflammation responses.
Thromboxanes
- C20-fatty-acid derivative containing a cyclic ether ring and oxygen-containing functional groups
- Promote platelet aggregation.
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
Explore the fascinating world of fatty acids, focusing on polyunsaturated and trans fatty acids. This quiz covers key characteristics, sources, and examples of important fatty acids like linoleic and arachidonic acids. Test your knowledge and understanding of fatty acid structures and properties.