Fatty Acid Catabolism Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is the role of malonyl-CoA in fatty acid metabolism?

  • Inhibits the transport of fatty acids into mitochondria (correct)
  • Promotes the conversion of acetyl-CoA to ketone bodies
  • Stimulates the breakdown of fatty acids in mitochondria
  • Enhances gluconeogenesis in the liver

Which of the following statements is true regarding vitamin B12?

  • It is synthesized by microbes. (correct)
  • It is also known as hydroxocobalamin.
  • It is used primarily for energy production.
  • It is synthesized by plants and animals.

In which organ are ketone bodies predominantly formed?

  • Heart
  • Kidneys
  • Liver (correct)
  • Lungs

What are the main types of ketone bodies produced from acetyl-CoA?

<p>Acetoacetate, acetone, and β-hydroxybutyrate (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of elevated levels of ketone bodies?

<p>Ketoacidosis or ketosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced at the end of normal β-oxidation of odd-number fatty acids?

<p>Propionyl-CoA (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme is responsible for reducing the trans-2 cis-4 bond in cis-double bond intermediates?

<p>Reductase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which coenzyme is essential for the isomerization step in the oxidation of odd-number fatty acids?

<p>Coenzyme B12 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for reduced energy output in the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids compared to saturated ones?

<p>Fewer ATP are generated due to the need for additional enzymes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the configuration of most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids?

<p>Cis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of epinephrine in fatty acid metabolism?

<p>Promote the mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of bond is typically formed between C-2 and C-3 in β-oxidation intermediates?

<p>Cis-double bond (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following fatty acids cannot be oxidized in the mitochondria due to its structure?

<p>Polyunsaturated fatty acids with more than two double bonds (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the propionyl-CoA produced from odd-number fatty acids?

<p>It undergoes further processing to succinyl-CoA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What problem does the cis configuration present for β-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids?

<p>It requires additional reactions to produce viable substrates (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of ketone bodies in metabolism?

<p>To serve as an emergency energy source during prolonged fasting (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme is crucial for the activation of fatty acids before they can undergo beta-oxidation?

<p>Fatty acyl-CoA synthetase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which blood component is directly linked to lipid transport and is often elevated in conditions like diabetes?

<p>VLDL (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary alternative fuel used by the body during starvation and untreated diabetes mellitus?

<p>Ketone bodies (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the level of oxaloacetate (OAA) affect the conversion of acetyl-CoA in the liver?

<p>Low OAA favors ketone body formation over entry into the TCA cycle. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is caused by untreated diabetes mellitus that leads to an accumulation of ketone bodies?

<p>Diabetic Ketoacidosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of glucagon on fatty acid metabolism in the state of untreated diabetes?

<p>Stimulates β-oxidation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the production of ketone bodies during prolonged starvation?

<p>Production increases sharply (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme's absence in the liver is crucial in the utilization of ketone bodies in peripheral tissues?

<p>HMG-CoA synthase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the physiological relevance of chylomicrons?

<p>They transport dietary lipids from the intestines to other locations in the body. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason behind the overproduction of ketone bodies during starvation?

<p>Decreased levels of insulin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary energy source for hibernating animals and migratory birds?

<p>Fatty acids (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main component of chylomicrons?

<p>Triacylglycerols (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does epinephrine play in fat mobilization from adipose tissue?

<p>It stimulates adenylyl cyclase. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major consequence of conjugation of fatty acids with CoA in regard to energy metabolism?

<p>It facilitates transportation into mitochondria. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the total ATP yield from the complete β-oxidation of palmitic acid (C16)?

<p>129 ATP (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following components are recognized by receptors on cell surfaces in lipoproteins?

<p>Apolipoproteins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following molecules serves as a shuttle for fatty acids into mitochondria?

<p>Carnitine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first stage of fatty acid oxidation in mitochondria?

<p>Sequential β-oxidation to generate acetyl-CoA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fatty acids does β-oxidation primarily work with?

<p>Even-numbered saturated fatty acids (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the conjugation of fatty acids to CoA energetically characterized?

<p>Releases pyrophosphate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the metabolism of glycerol is correct?

<p>Glycerol is converted into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of PKA during fat mobilization in adipose tissue?

<p>It phosphorylates perilipin. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the end result of transferring electrons from FADH2 and NADH during fatty acid oxidation?

<p>CO2 and ATP generation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which lipid class is not part of the chylomicron composition?

<p>Fatty acids (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Fatty Acid Catabolism

The breakdown of fatty acids for energy production.

Fatty Acids

Long-chain hydrocarbon molecules that serve as a primary energy source.

Triacylglycerols

Stored fat in adipose tissue, broken down into fatty acids for energy.

Epinephrine

A hormone that signals the body to mobilize stored fats.

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β-oxidation

The metabolic process that breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA for further energy release.

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Acetyl-CoA

A crucial intermediate molecule in the breakdown of fatty acids and carbohydrates, used by the citric acid cycle for energy production.

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Carnitine

A molecule that shuttles fatty acids into mitochondria for oxidation.

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Chylomicrons

Lipid transport particles that carry absorbed fats from the digestive system.

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Glycerol

A byproduct of triacylglycerol breakdown, utilized for energy production by entering the glycolytic pathway.

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Mitochondria

Cellular organelles where the majority of fatty acid oxidation occurs.

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Glycolytic Pathway

The metabolic pathway converting glucose into energy.

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Citric Acid Cycle

A metabolic cycle that plays a vital role in energy production from Acetyl-CoA.

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Fatty Acid Activation

The crucial first step in fatty acid oxidation, involving the conjugation with CoA.

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Energy Yield

The total amount of energy (usually in ATP) produced from the complete oxidation of a fatty acid.

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Adipocytes

Fat storage cells, releasing stored fats into the bloodstream.

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Succinyl-CoA synthesis from methylmalonyl-CoA mutase

A process where methylmalonyl-CoA is converted to succinyl-CoA for use in the metabolic pathway.

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Vit B12 (Cobalamine) synthesis

Produced by microbes, not plants or animals (humans rely on diet).

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Malonyl-CoA inhibition of fatty acid transport

Malonyl-CoA, a fatty acid synthesis precursor, blocks fatty acid entry into mitochondria, thus regulating fatty acid oxidation.

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Ketone body formation

Acetyl-CoA from fatty acid oxidation can be converted into ketone bodies (acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxybutyrate) to fuel other tissues, especially the brain in low glucose conditions.

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Ketoacidosis (Ketosis)

Accumulation of ketone bodies leading to a metabolic state characterized by abnormally low blood pH.

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Fatty Acid Oxidation

The process where fatty acids are broken down to produce energy.

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Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Fatty acids with double bonds in their carbon chain.

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Beta-Oxidation

A metabolic pathway that breaks down fatty acids, one carbon unit at a time.

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Isomerase

An enzyme that changes the arrangement of atoms in a molecule to produce a different isomer.

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Reductase

An enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of a molecule, in beta-oxidation process, removing a double bond.

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Odd-Number Fatty Acids

Fatty acids that have an odd number of carbon atoms in their chain.

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Propionyl-CoA

The end product of beta oxidation of odd-number fatty acids, which is later converted to succinyl-CoA.

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Coenzyme B12

An essential enzyme/cofactor needed for certain isomerization steps in the oxidation of odd-number fatty acids.

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Fatty Acid Mobilization

The process of releasing fatty acids from adipose tissue storage for energy use.

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Glycerol Metabolism

Conversion of glycerol (a fatty acid breakdown product) into usable energy.

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Fatty Acid Oxidation Steps

A multi-step process that breaks down activated fatty acids for energy production.

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Ketone Body Formation

Synthesis of ketone bodies from acetyl-CoA, a crucial energy source during low carbohydrate conditions.

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Fatty Acid Oxidation Regulation

Control of fatty acid breakdown, involving enzymes, hormones, and intermediates.

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Ketone bodies

Alternative fuel source for the body, produced in the liver from acetyl-CoA, primarily during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes.

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Acetyl CoA

A molecule that can either be used in the Citric Acid cycle (TCA) or to create ketone bodies.

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Oxaloacetate (OAA)

A substance crucial for the citric acid cycle. Levels decrease during starvation which diverts acetyl-CoA to ketone body production.

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Diabetic Ketoacidosis

A complication of untreated diabetes where the body produces excessive ketone bodies, leading to acidosis.

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Starvation

A state of extreme lack of food leading to increased ketone body production as the body shifts to using fats for energy.

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Peripheral tissues

Non-hepatic tissues; for example, brain, muscle, and organs that rely on ketone bodies for energy when glucose is scarce.

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Gluconeogenesis

The process of producing glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. In starvation, it draws down oxaloacetate.

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Fat energy storage

Fats are a highly efficient way to store large amounts of energy in the body.

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Study Notes

Fatty Acid Catabolism Overview

  • Fats are esters of glycerol and fatty acids.
  • Fats are highly reduced, thus have high energy content (~80% of total energy for liver and heart).
  • Fats are hydrophobic and inert, segregating from water; easy to store as lipid droplets without raising osmolarity.
  • Fats are a sole energy source for hibernating animals and migratory birds.

Digestion, Mobilization, and Transport of Fats

  • Bile salts emulsify dietary fats in the small intestine, forming mixed micelles.
  • Intestinal lipases degrade triacylglycerols.
  • Fatty acids and other breakdown products are taken up by intestinal mucosa and converted to triacylglycerols.
  • Chylomicrons are formed, encapsulating triacylglycerols with cholesterol and apolipoproteins.
  • Chylomicrons transport fats through the lymphatic system and bloodstream to tissues.
  • Lipoprotein lipase converts triacylglycerols in chylomicrons to fatty acids and glycerol, releasing them into cells.

Structure of Chylomicrons

  • Chylomicrons are 100-500 nm in size.
  • Chylomicrons primarily consist of triacylglycerols (~80%), phospholipids, cholesterol, cholesterol esters, and apolipoproteins (lipid-binding proteins).
  • Different combinations of lipids and proteins create various lipoprotein types, including chylomicrons, VLDL, and HDL.

Mobilization of Triacylglycerols in Adipose Tissue

  • Binding of epinephrine to adipocyte receptors stimulates adenylyl cyclase.
  • cAMP activates protein kinase A (PKA).
  • PKA phosphorylates perilipin, exposing triacylglycerols to hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL).
  • HSL hydrolyzes triacylglycerols into fatty acids and glycerol.
  • Fatty acids are released and transported by serum albumin to other tissues for energy generation.

Metabolism of Glycerol

  • Glycerol accounts for ~5% of total fat energy.
  • Glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, entering the glycolytic pathway.
  • All phosphorylated species are negatively charged, trapping them in the cytoplasm.

Fatty Acid Activation Prior to Oxidation

  • Fatty acid oxidation enzymes are in mitochondrial matrix.
  • Fatty acids must be transported from the cytoplasm to mitochondria and conjugated with CoA.
  • This conjugation is highly exothermic, releasing pyrophosphate, which is further hydrolyzed into two phosphates.

Fatty Acid Transport into Mitochondria

  • Carnitine acts as a fatty acid shuttle between cytosol and the mitochondrial matrix.
  • Fatty acyl-CoA is converted to fatty acylcarnitine by carnitine acyltransferase I.
  • Fatty acylcarnitine crosses the inner mitochondrial membrane.
  • Fatty acylcarnitine is converted back to fatty acyl-CoA by carnitine acyltransferase II.

Oxidation of Fatty Acids

  • Fatty acid oxidation (β-oxidation) occurs primarily in mitochondria.
  • It involves sequential cycles of oxidation.
  • Each cycle shortens the fatty acid chain by two carbons, producing one acetyl-CoA, one FADH2, and one NADH.
  • Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle.
  • FADH2 and NADH contribute electrons to the electron transport chain, generating ATP.

Stage 1: β-Oxidation of Saturated Fatty Acids

  • Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase oxidizes the fatty acyl-CoA, producing trans-Δ2-enoyl-CoA.
  • Enoyl-CoA hydratase adds water to the double bond.
  • β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase oxidizes the hydroxyl group, producing β-ketoacyl-CoA.
  • β-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase cleaves off a two-carbon acetyl-CoA fragment, regenerating the fatty acyl-CoA for the next cycle.

β-Oxidation of Saturated Fatty Acids: Energy Balance

  • Complete energy yield from palmitic acid (16 carbons) to acetyl-CoA is ~129 ATP.
  • Calculation involves ATP produced from NADH, FADH2, and acetyl-CoA oxidation in the citric acid cycle.

Monounsaturated Fatty Acid Oxidation

  • Monounsaturated fatty acids have a cis double bond, requiring an enoyl-CoA isomerase.
  • This intermediate isomerase is required to produce trans-Δ2-enoyl-CoA.
  • The remaining steps of β-oxidation are similar to those of saturated fatty acids.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Oxidation

  • Polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond.
  • 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase and enoyl-CoA isomerase are required to correctly position the double bonds.
  • The further oxidation process is similar to those in other fatty acid oxidation.

Mono/Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Oxidation Summary

  • Most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids have the cis configuration.
  • Intermediate products require isomerases and reductases for normal β-oxidation due to the correct positioning of the double bonds.
  • These additional steps lead to less energy production.

Oxidation of Odd-Number Fatty Acids

  • Odd-number fatty acids produce propionyl-CoA at the final cycle.
  • Propionyl-CoA is converted to succinyl-CoA.
  • Succinyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle.

Ketone Bodies - Alternative Fuel to Sugars

  • Acetyl-CoA, produced from fatty acid oxidation, can be converted to ketone bodies (acetoacetate, acetone, β-hydroxybutyrate) in the liver.
  • These ketone bodies are exported to other tissues (e.g., heart, muscle, brain) as an alternative fuel source during conditions with low glucose.

Ketone Bodies Formation

  • Starvation and uncontrolled diabetes cause excess ketone body production.
  • The liver synthesizes ketone bodies from acetyl-CoA when glucose is low.
  • Ketone bodies are transported to other tissues for energy.

Regulation of Fatty Acid Oxidation

  • High glucose levels stimulate malonyl-CoA production, inhibiting fatty acid transport into mitochondria.
  • Insulin increases fatty acid synthesis and inhibits breakdown.
  • Glucagon promotes fatty acid mobilization and inhibits synthesis.
  • Malonyl-CoA blocks fatty acid transport into mitochondria, regulating fatty acid oxidation.

Drugs and Diseases

  • Diseases like diabetes can lead to diabetic ketoacidosis (high ketone bodies in the blood).
  • Hormones (e.g., epinephrine) and vitamins (e.g., vitamin B12) are involved in metabolic processes.
  • Monitoring metabolites (like chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL, and ketone bodies) helps assess metabolic function.

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