Fall of the Western Roman Empire

The Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD)

• The fall resulted from long-term internal weaknesses and external pressures.
• Political instability, economic decline, military weakness, barbarian invasions, and social changes were all contributing factors.

Political Instability & Weak Leadership

• Frequent civil wars and power struggles destabilized the empire.
• The Praetorian Guard often assassinated or overthrew emperors.
• The division of the empire in 395 AD reduced coordination between East and West.
• Many emperors were ineffective, resulting in poor governance.

Economic Decline & Overreliance on Slavery

• Heavy taxation burdened the lower classes, while the rich avoided taxes.
• Inflation occurred due to debasing the currency.
• Trade and agriculture declined as slave labor became less sustainable.
• Urban decay occurred as cities shrank and infrastructure deteriorated.

Military Weakness & Overextension

• The army became dependent on foreign mercenaries (foederati).
• Barbarization of the army led to divided loyalties.
• The empire was too large to defend effectively.
• The Battle of Adrianople (378 AD) against the Goths significantly weakened the military.

Barbarian Invasions & Migrations

• Goths (Visigoths & Ostrogoths) fled into Roman territory due to Hunnic pressure.
• The Sack of Rome (410 AD) by Alaric the Visigoth shocked the empire.
• Vandals invaded Gaul, Spain, and North Africa, sacking Rome in 455 AD.
• The Huns under Attila (434–453 AD) ravaged the Balkans and Italy.
• In 476 AD, Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, the last Western Roman emperor.

Social & Cultural Changes

• Civic patriotism declined.
• Christianity’s rise shifted focus from the state to religion.
• A cultural divide between the Latin West and Greek East emerged.

The Eastern Empire’s Survival

• The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire survived due to wealth, urbanization, and better defenses.
• The West lacked these advantages and collapsed first.
• No single factor caused the fall; it was a slow decline.

The Carolingian Empire (800–888 AD)

• The empire emerged from the Frankish Kingdom.
• Charles Martel halted the Muslim advance at the Battle of Tours (732).
• Pepin the Short became the first Carolingian king (751–768).
• Charlemagne expanded the empire into Italy, Germany, and Spain.

Charlemagne's Rule

• In 800 AD, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans."

Government & Administration

• It used a feudal system.
• Missi Dominici monitored regional administration.
• Capitularies were issued to standardize governance.

Military & Expansion

• Armored cavalry (knights) and Frankish infantry were heavily relied on.
• It conquered Lombardy, Saxony, and parts of Spain.
• There were battles against Saxons, Avars, and Muslims.

Culture & Legacy

• The Carolingian Renaissance saw a revival of Latin learning, art, and architecture.
• Christianity spread through forced conversions.

Division of the Empire

• The Treaty of Verdun (843) split the empire among Charlemagne’s grandsons.
• This division led to the foundations of France, Germany, and Italy.

Decline

• Weak successors and Viking invasions weakened central authority.
• By 888 AD, the empire fragmented into smaller feudal states.

The Ottoman Empire (1299–1922 AD)

• Osman I founded it in 1299.
• It was initially a small Turkish beylik in Anatolia.
• It expanded under Murad I and Bayezid I into the Balkans.
• Mehmed II captured Constantinople (1453).
• Suleiman the Magnificent brought the empire to its peak (1520–1566).

Government & Administration

• The Sultan was the absolute ruler.
• The Grand Vizier advised the Sultan.
• The Devshirme system was used.
• The Millet system was used.

Military & Expansion

• Janissaries were an elite infantry corps.
• The navy dominated the Mediterranean.
• Egypt was conquered in 1517.
• Hungary was conquered in 1526.

Culture & Legacy

• Islamic art & architecture flourished
• There was tolerance of religious minorities.
• Legal reforms were implemented.

Decline

• There was a loss at the Battle of Lepanto (1571).
• The Siege of Vienna failed in 1683.
• Economic stagnation took place.
• European powers outpaced its industrialization.
• It was dissolved after WWI (1922).
• The Republic of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk replaced it.