Podcast
Questions and Answers
The right amount of ______ makes the planet habitable like Earth.
The right amount of ______ makes the planet habitable like Earth.
factors
The ______ is a dynamic mass of water that is continually on the move.
The ______ is a dynamic mass of water that is continually on the move.
hydrosphere
Earth’s ______ traps heat and shields the surface from harmful radiation.
Earth’s ______ traps heat and shields the surface from harmful radiation.
atmosphere
Water is an important component of all living ______.
Water is an important component of all living ______.
Climate is often defined as 'average ______.'
Climate is often defined as 'average ______.'
The global ocean accounts for about ______ percent of Earth’s water.
The global ocean accounts for about ______ percent of Earth’s water.
A planet requires a rapidly rotating ______ field to protect it from harmful radiation.
A planet requires a rapidly rotating ______ field to protect it from harmful radiation.
Energy is used by organisms to run their life ______.
Energy is used by organisms to run their life ______.
The biosphere includes all life on Earth, and most life on land is concentrated near the ______.
The biosphere includes all life on Earth, and most life on land is concentrated near the ______.
Ocean life is concentrated in the sunlit surface waters of the ______.
Ocean life is concentrated in the sunlit surface waters of the ______.
Some bacteria thrive in rocks as deep as 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) and in boiling hot ______.
Some bacteria thrive in rocks as deep as 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) and in boiling hot ______.
The geosphere extends from the surface to the center of the planet, a depth of ______ kilometers.
The geosphere extends from the surface to the center of the planet, a depth of ______ kilometers.
Soil is a mixture of weathered rock debris (geosphere) and organic matter from decayed plant and animal ______.
Soil is a mixture of weathered rock debris (geosphere) and organic matter from decayed plant and animal ______.
Oceanic crust is roughly ______ kilometers thick and composed of basalt.
Oceanic crust is roughly ______ kilometers thick and composed of basalt.
The continental crust averages about ______ kilometers thick.
The continental crust averages about ______ kilometers thick.
Carbon dioxide is an efficient absorber of energy emitted by Earth, influencing the heating of the ______.
Carbon dioxide is an efficient absorber of energy emitted by Earth, influencing the heating of the ______.
Air and water occupy the open spaces between the solid ______.
Air and water occupy the open spaces between the solid ______.
Water vapor in the air can vary from practically none at all up to about ______ percent by volume.
Water vapor in the air can vary from practically none at all up to about ______ percent by volume.
The lowermost layer of the atmosphere is called the ______, where temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
The lowermost layer of the atmosphere is called the ______, where temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
The ______ is the layer where temperature remains constant to a height of about 20 kilometers.
The ______ is the layer where temperature remains constant to a height of about 20 kilometers.
In the mesosphere, temperatures decrease with height until reaching the ______ at approximately 80 kilometers above the surface.
In the mesosphere, temperatures decrease with height until reaching the ______ at approximately 80 kilometers above the surface.
The thermosphere extends outward from the mesopause and has no well-defined ______.
The thermosphere extends outward from the mesopause and has no well-defined ______.
Ozone is a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms into each molecule, known as ______.
Ozone is a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms into each molecule, known as ______.
Aerosols are tiny solid and liquid particles that can ______, reflect, and scatter solar radiation.
Aerosols are tiny solid and liquid particles that can ______, reflect, and scatter solar radiation.
More than 82 percent of Earth’s volume is contained in the ______, a solid, rocky shell.
More than 82 percent of Earth’s volume is contained in the ______, a solid, rocky shell.
The lithosphere consists of the entire crust and uppermost ______, forming the rigid outer shell.
The lithosphere consists of the entire crust and uppermost ______, forming the rigid outer shell.
The asthenosphere lies beneath the lithosphere to a depth of about ______ kilometers.
The asthenosphere lies beneath the lithosphere to a depth of about ______ kilometers.
In the core, the composition is thought to be an iron–nickel alloy with minor amounts of ______.
In the core, the composition is thought to be an iron–nickel alloy with minor amounts of ______.
The outer core is a liquid layer approximately ______ kilometers thick.
The outer core is a liquid layer approximately ______ kilometers thick.
Despite its higher temperature, the iron in the inner core is ______ due to immense pressures.
Despite its higher temperature, the iron in the inner core is ______ due to immense pressures.
The concept of continental drift suggests that the continents move about the face of the ______.
The concept of continental drift suggests that the continents move about the face of the ______.
The proposal of continental drift contradicted the view that continents are permanent and ______ features.
The proposal of continental drift contradicted the view that continents are permanent and ______ features.
The theory that emerged, called ______, provided geologists with a comprehensive model of Earth’s internal workings.
The theory that emerged, called ______, provided geologists with a comprehensive model of Earth’s internal workings.
Lithospheric plates are in continual motion driven by the unequal distribution of ______ within our planet.
Lithospheric plates are in continual motion driven by the unequal distribution of ______ within our planet.
Convergent boundaries are located where two plates move towards each other, and one plate plunges beneath the other, descending into the ______.
Convergent boundaries are located where two plates move towards each other, and one plate plunges beneath the other, descending into the ______.
At divergent boundaries, fractures created as the plates separate are filled with molten rock that wells up from the ______.
At divergent boundaries, fractures created as the plates separate are filled with molten rock that wells up from the ______.
California's San Andreas Fault is a well-known example of a ______ fault boundary, where plates slide past one another.
California's San Andreas Fault is a well-known example of a ______ fault boundary, where plates slide past one another.
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Study Notes
Factors That Make the Planet Habitable
- Temperature regulates atomic and molecular motion, essential for life processes.
- Water functions as a solvent, crucial for chemical transport within cells.
- Atmosphere protects from harmful radiation and provides essential gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
- Energy is derived from light or chemical sources to fuel biological activities.
- Nutrients play a vital role in building and maintaining organisms.
- A magnetic field protects the planet from stellar flares and harmful radiation.
Hydrosphere
- Comprises all water on Earth, continuously cycling between oceans, atmosphere, and land.
- Oceans cover about 71% of Earth's surface, with an average depth of 3,800 meters (12,500 feet), containing 97% of Earth's water.
- Freshwater sources include underground reserves, streams, lakes, and glaciers, supporting all life forms.
Atmosphere
- Earth’s atmosphere is a thin layer of gases crucial for survival, shielding against ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
- Weather, defined as the atmospheric state, varies continuously, while climate represents long-term averages and extremes.
- Carbon dioxide efficiently absorbs energy emitted from Earth, impacting atmospheric heating.
- Variable components like water vapor and aerosols play significant roles in climate dynamics.
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
- Troposphere: The lowest layer where temperature decreases with altitude; characterized by vertical air mixing.
- Stratosphere: Temperature remains constant to 20 km, then rises until the stratopause at nearly 50 km.
- Mesosphere: Temperature decreases until the mesopause (80 km), reaching -30°C (-22°F).
- Thermosphere: Extends beyond the mesopause, temperatures can exceed 1,000°C (1,800°F) due to solar radiation absorption.
Biosphere
- Encompasses all living organisms, concentrated near Earth’s surface for access to sunlight and essential nutrients.
- Life can thrive in extreme environments, such as deep ocean vents or high-altitude ecosystems.
- Organisms interact with and modify their physical environment, influencing geospheres, hydrospheres, and atmospheres.
Geosphere
- Extends from Earth's surface to its core, about 6,400 kilometers deep, being the largest of Earth’s spheres.
- Soil, supporting plant growth, is a blend of weathered rock (geosphere) and organic matter (biosphere).
- Weathering processes involve air (atmosphere) and water (hydrosphere), affecting soil formation.
Earth's Internal Structure
- Crust: Earth's outer layer, varies in thickness (7 km oceanic, up to 70 km continental).
- Mantle: Over 82% of Earth's volume, a solid, rocky layer to nearly 2,900 km depth, composed mainly of peridotite.
- Lithosphere: The crust and upper mantle form a rigid outer shell about 100 km thick.
- Asthenosphere: A soft layer beneath the lithosphere, allowing slow flow and some melting.
- Lower Mantle: Extremely hot rocks capable of gradual flow, extending to the core.
- Core: Composed of an iron-nickel alloy; outer core is liquid and generates Earth's magnetic field, while the inner core remains solid despite high temperatures.
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
- Continental drift hypothesis suggested that continents move across Earth's surface, challenging previous beliefs of permanence.
- Plate tectonics theory explains that Earth's lithosphere is made of tectonic plates, in continuous motion due to internal heat distribution.
- Plate boundaries:
- Convergent: Plates collide, with one subducting into the mantle.
- Divergent: Plates separate, creating fractures filled with molten rock.
- Transform: Plates slide past one another, causing neither creation nor destruction of the seafloor, exemplified by the San Andreas Fault.
- Average plate motion is about 1 centimeter (2 inches) per year, similar to fingernail growth.
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