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Questions and Answers
What is the primary focus of petrology?
What is the primary focus of petrology?
Which term describes the contact plane between two adjacent beds of strata?
Which term describes the contact plane between two adjacent beds of strata?
What does relative dating involve when analyzing stratified rocks?
What does relative dating involve when analyzing stratified rocks?
What phenomenon occurs when individual beds in sedimentary rocks have very small thickness?
What phenomenon occurs when individual beds in sedimentary rocks have very small thickness?
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Which branch of geology studies life forms that existed at the start of the Holocene epoch?
Which branch of geology studies life forms that existed at the start of the Holocene epoch?
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What is the primary cause of physical weathering?
What is the primary cause of physical weathering?
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Which process occurs when rainwater reacts with rock minerals to create new minerals?
Which process occurs when rainwater reacts with rock minerals to create new minerals?
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What is residual heat?
What is residual heat?
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What does flux melting require to occur?
What does flux melting require to occur?
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What is the definition of plutonism?
What is the definition of plutonism?
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Which term describes magma that moves up into a volcano without erupting?
Which term describes magma that moves up into a volcano without erupting?
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Which substance is formed from the crystallization of molten material on the Earth's surface?
Which substance is formed from the crystallization of molten material on the Earth's surface?
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What mechanism primarily facilitates decompression melting?
What mechanism primarily facilitates decompression melting?
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What is the composition of the Outer Core of the Earth?
What is the composition of the Outer Core of the Earth?
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Who is credited with the idea of the continental drift?
Who is credited with the idea of the continental drift?
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What was the name given to the large landmass that the continents were thought to have once formed?
What was the name given to the large landmass that the continents were thought to have once formed?
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What was one type of evidence used by Wegener to support his theory of continental drift?
What was one type of evidence used by Wegener to support his theory of continental drift?
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What technology is used to measure ocean depths and topography?
What technology is used to measure ocean depths and topography?
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Which feature of the ocean basin constitutes about 23% of the Earth's surface?
Which feature of the ocean basin constitutes about 23% of the Earth's surface?
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What is a Guyot?
What is a Guyot?
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Which type of ocean feature contains the greatest depths in the ocean?
Which type of ocean feature contains the greatest depths in the ocean?
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What type of stress causes rocks to be squeezed into each other?
What type of stress causes rocks to be squeezed into each other?
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Which type of fault involves horizontal movement of blocks of rock?
Which type of fault involves horizontal movement of blocks of rock?
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What is the primary process through which rocks change form and structure due to heat and pressure?
What is the primary process through which rocks change form and structure due to heat and pressure?
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What geological feature represents the gently sloping area before the ocean floor?
What geological feature represents the gently sloping area before the ocean floor?
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What structure is formed when blocks of rock bend downwards?
What structure is formed when blocks of rock bend downwards?
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Which metamorphic agent is described as the most important factor in driving chemical changes in rocks?
Which metamorphic agent is described as the most important factor in driving chemical changes in rocks?
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Which part of the ocean basin is defined as covering the greatest portion of the Earth's surface?
Which part of the ocean basin is defined as covering the greatest portion of the Earth's surface?
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What type of metamorphism occurs when hot magma moves upwards through existing rocks?
What type of metamorphism occurs when hot magma moves upwards through existing rocks?
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What is the primary characteristic of the asthenosphere compared to the lithosphere?
What is the primary characteristic of the asthenosphere compared to the lithosphere?
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At what temperature range can it be expected deep inside the Earth?
At what temperature range can it be expected deep inside the Earth?
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Which type of metamorphism is associated with high pressure in subduction zones?
Which type of metamorphism is associated with high pressure in subduction zones?
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What is the boundary between the continental slope and shelf called?
What is the boundary between the continental slope and shelf called?
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What type of crust is thicker on average?
What type of crust is thicker on average?
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What process leads to the destruction of old oceanic rocks?
What process leads to the destruction of old oceanic rocks?
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What characterizes foliated metamorphic rocks?
What characterizes foliated metamorphic rocks?
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Which ocean basin is identified as the smallest among the five major ocean basins?
Which ocean basin is identified as the smallest among the five major ocean basins?
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What is caused by tectonic plates moving due to convection currents?
What is caused by tectonic plates moving due to convection currents?
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In which type of metamorphism are sedimentary rocks transformed under low temperature and pressure?
In which type of metamorphism are sedimentary rocks transformed under low temperature and pressure?
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Which of these best describes the oceanic crust compared to the continental crust?
Which of these best describes the oceanic crust compared to the continental crust?
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What describes non-foliated metamorphic rocks?
What describes non-foliated metamorphic rocks?
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What is the Mohorovicic discontinuity commonly referred to as?
What is the Mohorovicic discontinuity commonly referred to as?
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What kind of alteration occurs due to hot, chemically aggressive water near mid-ocean ridges?
What kind of alteration occurs due to hot, chemically aggressive water near mid-ocean ridges?
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What model explains the processes of opening and closing of ocean basins?
What model explains the processes of opening and closing of ocean basins?
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In terms of isostatic characteristics, how do continental margins differ from oceanic crust?
In terms of isostatic characteristics, how do continental margins differ from oceanic crust?
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Study Notes
Exogenic Processes
- Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at Earth's surface.
- Agents of weathering include water, salt, temperature, plants, and animals.
- Physical weathering is caused by changes in temperature, causing rocks to break apart.
- Abrasion: Rocks breaking from contact with water, wind, or gravity.
- Freeze-thaw: Water seeping into cracks, freezing and expanding, breaking apart rocks.
- Exfoliation: Large sheets of rock detaching due to pressure release.
- Chemical weathering occurs when rainwater reacts with minerals, forming new minerals and soluble salts.
- Carbonation: Carbon dioxide in rainwater becomes weakly acidic.
- Hydrolysis: Breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.
- Oxidation: Breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often creating a rusty color.
- Biological weathering weakens rocks through plants and animals.
- Physical means: Burrowing animals create holes, moving rock fragments.
- Chemical means: Plants and animals produce acidic substances that react with rock.
Plutonism and Volcanism
- Two sources of heat are residual heat and radioactive decay.
- Plutonism refers to igneous geological activities below Earth's surface.
- Plutonites crystallize inside the crust.
- Volcanism refers to geological phenomena on the Earth's surface.
- Volcanites crystallize outside or on the Earth's surface.
- Decompression melting occurs when a rock body is at a constant temp but pressure is reduced.
- Flux melting happens when water or carbon dioxide is added to a rock that's close to its melting point.
- Magma escapes in two forms: intrusion and extrusion.
- Intrusion: Magma moves into a volcano without erupting.
- Extrusion: Magma erupts onto the Earth's surface.
Metamorphism of Rocks
- Metamorphism is the change in form and structure of rocks due to intense heat and pressure.
- Key agents are pressure and heat.
- Chemically active fluids enhance metamorphic processing.
- Types of metamorphism include:
- Regional metamorphism: Common form of metamorphism over broad areas.
- Contact or thermal metamorphism: Occurs when magma travels through rocks.
- High-pressure metamorphism: Occurs in zones of subduction.
- Burial metamorphism: Low temperature and pressure changes sedimentary rocks.
- Hydrothermal metamorphism: Hot, chemically aggressive water alters rocks, common in mid-ocean ridges.
- Impact or shock metamorphism: Rocks change from high-speed projectile impacts (meteorites).
- Foliated rocks show planar foliation.
- Non-foliated rocks don't show such planar foliation.
Types of Stresses in the Earth's Crust
- Compression: Rocks are squeezed together.
- Tension: Rocks are pulled apart.
- Shear: Rocks slide past each other.
- Faults: Breaks in rocks due to stress.
- Dip-slip: Vertical movement.
- Strike-slip: Horizontal movement.
- Folding: Bending of rocks due to stress.
- Anticline: Upward fold.
- Syncline: Downward fold.
- Monocline: Slightly bent rock layer.
Earth's Layers and Composition
- Earth has layers: Crust, Mantle, Outer Core, Inner Core.
- The lithosphere contains crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
- The asthenosphere is plastic-like and sits below the lithosphere.
- The mesosphere is a part of the mantle.
- The outer core is liquid.
- The inner core is solid.
- Each layer has a unique set of rocks and minerals.
Continental Drift
- Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents.
- Alfred Wegener proposed the theory.
- Evidence includes similar rock formations, fossil correlations, and climatic evidence.
Seafloor Spreading
- Underwater mountain chains in divergent boundaries.
- Evidence includes molten material, magnetic stripes, and drilling samples.
Structure and Evolution of Ocean Basins
- Sonar and Bathymetry: Used to map ocean depths and structures.
- Mid-ocean ridges: Mountain ranges in divergent boundaries.
- Ocean trenches: Deep depressions.
- Continental shelves: Shallow parts of continental crust.
- Continental rises, slopes, and abyssal plains, seamounts.
Methods of Determining the Age of Stratified Rocks
- Relative dating: Arranging layers in order of oldest to youngest.
- Absolute dating: Determining the exact age of layers.
- Methods include radiometric dating, amino acid dating, dendrochronology, and thermoluminescence dating.
The History of Earth Through the Geologic Time Scale
- The history of Earth divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
- The Phanerozoic Eon is the current eon.
- The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic are major eras.
- There are also mass extinction events over time.
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Description
Explore the various exogenic processes that lead to the weathering of rocks on Earth's surface. This quiz covers physical, chemical, and biological weathering, detailing the mechanisms involved and the agents that contribute to these processes. Understand how temperature, water, and living organisms interact with rocks in nature.
