Evolutionary Biology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What does a branch point in a phylogenetic tree represent?

  • The most recent ancestor of all taxa in the tree.
  • A characteristic present in an ancestral species, shared by its descendants.
  • A group that diverged early in the history of the group.
  • The point at which two species shared a common ancestor. (correct)

Which of these best defines a 'basal taxon'?

  • An organism that represents the last common ancestor of all species.
  • A group that shares an immediate common ancestor.
  • An organism with similar DNA sequences to those of another organism.
  • A taxon that diverges early in the history of the group and originates near the common ancestor. (correct)

What are homologies in the context of evolutionary biology?

  • Similarities in form and function resulting from convergent evolution.
  • Differences in DNA sequences among distantly related organisms.
  • Phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry. (correct)
  • Morphological differences caused by environmental conditions.

Which of the following describes a synapomorphy?

<p>A characteristic present in an ancestral species and shared exclusively by its evolutionary descendants. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of morphological and molecular homologies in phylogeny?

<p>They suggest that organisms with similar traits or sequences are likely more closely related. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the primary focus of cladistics?

<p>Classifying organisms based on common ancestry and shared characteristics. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is a characteristic unique to animals, that is not found in other organisms?

<p>Having epithelial and connective tissue (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In vertebrates, what does the dorsal, hollow nerve cord primarily develop into?

<p>The brain and spine. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the endostyle, as described in the content?

<p>To assist in filter feeding and synthesize thyroxine. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do pharyngeal slits develop in bony fish and terrestrial animals, respectively?

<p>They develop into gill arches in bony fish and the jaw and inner ear in terrestrial animals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental concept underlying the field of zoology?

<p>The genetic code common to all life (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a primary source of evidence for the theory of evolution?

<p>Personal experience (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'phylogeny' refer to in the context of systematics?

<p>A diagram that illustrates the evolutionary relationships between species or groups (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided mnemonic device, what taxonomic rank comes immediately before 'Family'?

<p>Order (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Figure 26.4, what is the genus of the American badger?

<p>Taxidea (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which two organisms from Figure 26.4 belong to the same family?

<p>American badger and European otter (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does genetic unity imply about evolutionary relationships?

<p>Organisms share a common genetic history. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of mutations in the context of biodiversity?

<p>Mutations are a primary source of diversity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of 'Systematics', as described in the text?

<p>To determine evolutionary relationships by using fossils and genetic data (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main outcome for species that do NOT adapt to their existing environmental conditions?

<p>Extinction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for similarities that arise from convergent evolution, where different lineages develop similar adaptations due to comparable environmental pressures?

<p>Analogy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In cladistics, what term describes a group that consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants?

<p>Monophyletic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a shared derived character (synapomorphy)?

<p>An evolutionary novelty that is unique to a specific clade (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of using an outgroup when comparing species in a phylogenetic study?

<p>To differentiate between shared ancestral and shared derived characters of an ingroup (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which definition best describes a paraphyletic group?

<p>A group that includes an ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The presence of a backbone in vertebrates is an example of what type of character?

<p>A shared ancestral character (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of character is most useful to group organisms into clades?

<p>Shared derived character (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given the definitions of phylogenetic terms, which of the following scenarios would represent convergent evolution?

<p>A group of species that have similar traits due to similar environmental pressures but no common ancestor showing such a trait. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a shared derived character (synapomorphy)?

<p>A trait shared by two or more taxa and their most recent common ancestor but not by their earlier ancestors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of cladistics?

<p>Organizing organisms based on common ancestry and shared characteristics. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a cladogram primarily illustrate?

<p>Relationships based on shared traits and common ancestors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key method used in phylogenies?

<p>Using various data sources (morphological, genetic, etc.) to infer evolutionary relationships. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do phylogenetic trees differ from cladograms?

<p>Phylogenetic trees show inferred evolutionary relationships, while cladograms show relationships based on shared traits and common ancestors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which trait is a synapomorphy that is shared by all modern birds?

<p>Feathers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of a synapomorphy in evolutionary studies?

<p>It indicates traits that evolved more recently and are useful for defining clades. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is primarily used in cladistics for classifying organisms?

<p>Common ancestry and shared characteristics (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is primarily used to distinguish vertebrates from nonvertebrate chordates?

<p>Development of vertebrae (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of a vertebrate's body is formed from the ectoderm germ layer?

<p>Epidermis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of Urochordata in their adult form?

<p>Retention of pharyngeal slits (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do Hox genes play in vertebrate development?

<p>Regulate the expression of developmental genes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following tissue types provides structural support and strength in vertebrates?

<p>Connective tissues (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the vertebrate cardiovascular system, what type is predominantly found?

<p>Closed circulatory system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the hindbrain in vertebrates?

<p>Regulates heartbeat and breathing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which germ layer forms the kidneys in vertebrates?

<p>Mesoderm (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following classes of vertebrates evolved jaws?

<p>Cartilaginous and bony fish (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of sensory reception is primarily developed in tetrapods for hearing?

<p>Auditory reception (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the neural crest contribute to in vertebrates?

<p>Various cell types throughout the body (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic do all vertebrates share regarding their body structure?

<p>Presence of a dorsal nerve cord (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is unique to vertebrates compared to other chordates?

<p>Development of an endoskeleton (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a gene is found to be very similar across two distantly related species, is it appropriate to classify that as a homology, and potentially indicative of a shared ancestor?

<p>Yes, because shared ancestry would be indicated by the similarity of genetic material that arose as a result of the mutation of a common ancestor. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a phylogenetic tree, which of the following is a critical distinction between a basal taxon and sister taxa?

<p>A basal taxon diverged early from the ancestral lineage, while sister taxa share a more recent common ancestor. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If two species share a phenotypic similarity not present in their most recent common ancestor, and it is found to have arisen independently, would this be considered a homology?

<p>No, because homologies must be inherited from a common ancestor. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes what a rooted phylogenetic tree provides over an unrooted one?

<p>A rooted tree infers which organism is closest to the common ancestor, whereas an unrooted tree only depicts relationships. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of phylogeny, what is the key difference between a homology and a synapomorphy?

<p>A homology is a shared trait from a common ancestor; a synapomorphy is a shared derived trait unique to a particular clade. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental distinction between homology and analogy in the context of evolutionary biology?

<p>Homology indicates shared ancestry, while analogy represents similarity due to convergent evolution. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best characterizes convergent evolution?

<p>The appearance of similar adaptations in distantly related organisms driven by comparable environmental constraints. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a monophyletic group differ from a paraphyletic group in cladistics?

<p>Monophyletic groups include all descendants of a common ancestor, while paraphyletic groups exclude some. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of phylogenetic analysis, what is the primary difference between a shared ancestral character (symplesiomorphy) and a shared derived character (synapomorphy)?

<p>Symplesiomorphies are inherited from a distant ancestor, while synapomorphies are evolutionary novelties within a particular clade. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the use of an outgroup essential in cladistic analysis?

<p>To determine which characteristics are shared ancestral vs. shared derived for the ingroup. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following would be an example of symplesiomorphy?

<p>The presence of a backbone in vertebrates (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main limitation of using symplesiomorphy for determining a clade?

<p>They do not reflect recent evolutionary changes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between clades and phylogenetic trees?

<p>Clades are nested within larger clades in a hierarchical manner in a phylogenetic tree. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What unifying principle underlies the field of zoology?

<p>The understanding that all living organisms share a common genetic history through evolution. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between genetic similarity and evolutionary relatedness?

<p>The more closely related two organisms are, the more alike their DNA is. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the hierarchical order of taxa from the most inclusive to the least inclusive, based on the mnemonic device mentioned?

<p>Kingdon, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the study of phylogeny important in understanding the diversity of life?

<p>It provides a visual tool to understand the history of the branching events of organisms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would systematics utilize fossil data in establishing evolutionary relationships?

<p>To examine an organism's morphology and physical characteristics to infer common ancestry. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Figure 26.4, which species are most closely related, belonging to the same genus?

<p>The coyote and the gray wolf. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do mutations play in genetic diversity?

<p>Mutations create the source of differences in DNA, leading to genetic diversity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of adaptation and extinction, what is the potential outcome for species that do not adapt?

<p>The species will inevitably experience extinction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of common genetic history relate to the modern theory of evolution?

<p>It implies that all organisms are linked through ancestry and that the modern theory of evolution is, therefore, a unifying theory of biology. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most accurate interpretation of evolution, as described in this content?

<p>It serves as a unifying framework for biological understanding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is primarily responsible for the development of the jaw in terrestrial animals?

<p>Pharyngeal slits (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the function of the endostyle in chordates?

<p>Helps in filter feeding and synthesizes thyroxine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of tissue is primarily responsible for movement in vertebrates?

<p>Muscle tissue (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is not part of the five key characteristics of chordates?

<p>Presence of shared derived characters (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following organisms is classified as a vertebrate based on evolutionary characteristics?

<p>Hagfish (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference in outcome between cladistics and phylogenies?

<p>Phylogenies emphasize evolutionary history more than clades. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of character usage, how do synapomorphies differ from other traits?

<p>Synapomorphies indicate traits that have evolved more recently. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the method of organizing organisms based on common ancestry significant?

<p>It aids in understanding relationships and shared characteristics. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the significance of phylogenetic trees compared to cladograms?

<p>Phylogenetic trees can indicate the timing of evolutionary events. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the method of cladistics primarily differ from that of phylogenetic analysis?

<p>Cladistics uses a specific method to group species into clades. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of traits are considered useful for defining clades in cladistics?

<p>Traits shared by all organisms in a clade and their relatives. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best captures a fundamental goal of phylogenetic studies?

<p>To infer evolutionary relationships among species. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary focus of both cladistics and phylogenetic trees despite their differences?

<p>To illustrate the relationships based on shared characteristics. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key characteristic distinguishes vertebrates from nonvertebrate chordates?

<p>Development of a cranium surrounding the brain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What function do Hox genes serve in vertebrates?

<p>They regulate gene expression for developmental patterns. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which system in vertebrates is characterized by a closed circulatory system?

<p>Cardiovascular system (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the nervous system's hindbrain in vertebrates?

<p>Managing involuntary life-sustaining functions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In vertebrate evolution, which group is characterized by jawless fish?

<p>Agnatha (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Urochordata in their adult form from their larval stage?

<p>Becoming sessile and losing most chordate characteristics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which feature of vertebrate body development involves the formation of the tripartite brain?

<p>Presence of a neural crest (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What contribution does the neural crest make in vertebrate development?

<p>Differentiating into various cell types (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the alimentary system is NOT characteristic of vertebrates?

<p>Ability to filter-feed particles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of the ectoderm germ layer?

<p>Develops into nervous system components (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which vertebrate class is associated with the evolution of feathers?

<p>Birds (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What supports the notion of an endoskeleton enabling vertebrates to grow large?

<p>Provides rigid support through mineralized tissues (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of germ cells primarily gives rise to the kidneys in vertebrates?

<p>Mesoderm (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following cell types are involved in the connective tissue of vertebrates?

<p>Adipose tissues and blood cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Branch Point

A point on a phylogenetic tree that represents the divergence of two evolutionary lineages from a common ancestor.

Sister Taxa

Two or more species that share an immediate common ancestor.

Rooted Tree

A phylogenetic tree that includes a branch representing the last common ancestor of all taxa in the tree.

Basal Taxon

A lineage that diverges early in the history of a group and originates close to the common ancestor.

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Homologies

Similarities in physical traits or genetic sequences that are due to shared ancestry.

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What is Zoology?

The study of animals.

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Homology

Similarity between organisms due to shared ancestry.

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Analogy

Similarity between organisms due to convergent evolution, where similar environmental pressures lead to similar adaptations.

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Cell Theory

All living things are composed of cells.

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Clade

A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants.

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Genetic Unity

DNA carries the genetic information for all living things.

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How does DNA relate to evolutionary relationships?

The more similar the DNA of two organisms, the more closely related they are.

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Monophyletic

A clade that consists of an ancestral species and all its descendants.

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Paraphyletic

A clade that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its descendants.

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How do mutations contribute to diversity?

Mutations introduce variation into the genetic makeup of organisms, driving evolution.

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Polyphyletic

A clade that consists of various species with different ancestors.

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What is evolution?

Evolution is the unifying theory in biology explaining the diversity of life on Earth.

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What are some evidences for evolution?

Fossil records, comparative anatomy, biogeography, embryology, and DNA evidence support the theory of evolution.

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Shared Ancestral Character (Symplesiomorphy)

A shared ancestral character, inherited from a distant ancestor.

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Shared Derived Character (Synapomorphy)

A shared derived character, an evolutionary novelty specific to a clade.

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How does adaptation relate to survival?

Organisms must adapt to their environment to survive and avoid extinction.

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What is classification of species?

A hierarchical system used to classify organisms based on evolutionary relationships.

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What is a phylogeny?

A diagram depicting the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species.

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Cladistics

A specific method for classifying organisms based on common ancestry and shared characteristics.

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Shared Ancestral Characters

Common traits in organisms that are inherited from a shared ancestor, indicating their evolutionary relationship.

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Shared Derived Characters

A unique feature that originated in a common ancestor and evolved in its descendants, forming a distinct group.

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Phylogeny

A diagram that represents the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species, showing their branching patterns and relationships.

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Cladogram

A diagram that shows how organisms are related based on shared traits and common ancestors. It is created using cladistics.

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Phylogenetic Tree

A diagram that shows the inferred evolutionary relationships among species or groups of species. It is created using phylogeny.

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Method of Phylogenies

Can use various data sources (morphological, genetic, etc.) to infer evolutionary relationships.

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Significance of Synapomorphies

Indicates traits that evolved more recently and are useful for defining clades.

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Cephalochordata

A group of animals that retain all five chordate characteristics throughout their adult life. They lack a backbone and are filter feeders. They have a V-shaped arrangement of muscles for locomotion.

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Urochordata

This group includes sea squirts or tunicates, which are invertebrate chordates. They exhibit chordate characteristics only as larvae but lose most of them in their adult sessile stage, retaining only pharyngeal gill slits. They are covered by a tunic made of cellulose.

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Vertebrae

The primary characteristic that distinguishes vertebrates from other chordates. These bones encircle the spinal cord, providing support and protection.

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Cranium

A bony or cartilaginous structure that encases the brain in vertebrates. Provides protection for the brain.

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Ectoderm

The most outer layer of the three germ layers in vertebrate embryos. It gives rise to the epidermis, linings of digestive and respiratory tracts, and most of the nervous system.

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Mesoderm

The middle layer of the three germ layers in vertebrate embryos. It develops into muscles, skeleton, connective tissues, the circulatory system, and the urogenital system.

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Endoderm

The innermost layer of the three germ layers in vertebrates. It forms the lining of the digestive tract, including internal organs like the liver and pancreas. It also gives rise to the lining of most of the respiratory system.

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Forebrain

The anterior part of the brain responsible for sensory processing, particularly smell and vision. It's also involved in complex behaviors like learning and memory.

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Midbrain

The middle part of the brain responsible for processing auditory and touch information and initiating motor responses.

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Hindbrain

The posterior part of the brain responsible for controlling involuntary functions like breathing, heart rate, and balance.

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Hox Genes

A group of genes found in clusters that regulate the expression of developmental genes. They play a crucial role in determining the body plan and form along the anterior-posterior axis. Vertebrates possess a greater number of these gene clusters due to duplication events compared to other animals.

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Neural Crest

A unique population of cells found only in vertebrates that arise from the ectoderm during embryo development. They are migratory and highly versatile, differentiating into a variety of cell types. They contribute to forming adrenal glands, pigment cells, digestive cells, and smooth muscle tissues lining the aorta.

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Epithelial Tissues

Tissues that form sheets of tightly packed cells that act as boundaries between various parts of the body. They provide protection, absorption, and secretion.

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Muscle Tissues

Tissues made up of cells that can contract, generating movement and force. These tissues primarily contain the proteins actin and myosin.

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Neural Tissues

Tissues that consist of neurons and glial cells. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information throughout the body.

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Connective Tissues

These tissues are responsible for structural support, protection, and strength. They can be found in various forms, including bone, cartilage, fat, blood, tendons, and ligaments.

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Axial Musculature

These muscles primarily involve locomotion, or movement.

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What is the Cell Theory?

All living things are made of cells.

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What is Genetic Unity?

DNA contains the hereditary information for all living things.

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What is Phylogenetic Systematics?

A method for determining evolutionary relationships.

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What is Systematics?

Uses fossils, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships and classify organisms.

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Synapomorphy

A character that is unique to a particular clade and its ancestral species. It is a derived trait that helps define the group.

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Outgroup

A closely related species used as a reference point when comparing different traits in a group of organisms under study.

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Shared Derived Characters (Synapomorphies)

Shared features that evolved more recently in a specific group of organisms. These traits are useful for defining clades and identifying evolutionary relationships.

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Phylogenetic Systematics

A specific method used to study evolutionary relationships. It utilizes various data sources like morphology, genetics, and fossils to infer how species are related.

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What is Cladistics?

A specific method used to classify organisms based on their evolutionary relationships, primarily relying on common ancestry and shared characteristics.

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What are Shared Derived Characters (Synapomorphies)?

Traits that evolved more recently and are unique to a particular group of organisms (a clade). These characteristics help define the clade's evolutionary history.

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What is a Clade?

A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants. Think of a branch on a phylogenetic tree.

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What are Neural Crest Cells?

The specialized cells that develop from the outermost layer of the vertebrate embryo (ectoderm) and migrate to various locations, differentiating into various cell types. They play a critical role in forming various structures and tissues throughout the body.

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Chordates

A group of animals that have a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, a post-anal tail and a segmented body.

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Nonvertebrate chordates

Animals that are classified as chordates without backbones.

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Notochord

A flexible rod that supports the body and provides a point of attachment for muscles.

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Dorsal hollow nerve cord

A fluid-filled tube that runs along the back of the body and serves as the central nervous system.

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Pharyngeal slits

Openings in the throat that are used for filter-feeding and respiration.

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Post-anal Tail

A tail that extends beyond the anus.

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Triblastic body plan

A body plan that develops from three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

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Neural Crest Cells

A unique group of cells found only in vertebrates that migrate to different parts of the body and differentiate into various cell types.

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Study Notes

Vertebrate Zoology Introduction

  • Vertebrate Zoology is the study of the animal kingdom (Metazoa).
  • This field encompasses various subsets of the study of animals.

What is Zoology?

  • Zoology is the study of the animal kingdom (Metazoa).
  • Subsets of Zoology include:
    • Ichthyology - The study of fish
    • Ornithology - The study of birds
    • Entomology - The study of insects
    • Herpetology - The study of reptiles and amphibians
    • Mammalogy - The study of mammals
    • Malacology - The study of mollusks
    • Arachnology - The study of spiders
    • Protozoology - The study of one-celled animals
    • Parasitology - The study of parasites

The Commonality of All Living Things

  • All living things are made of cells (Cell Theory).
  • Genetic Unity: DNA contains the hereditary information for all living things
  • The more closely related 2 organisms are, the more similar their DNA.
  • The source of diversity is through mutations.
  • Evolution is the unifying theory of biology
  • Evidences for evolution: Biodiversity, Fossil Record, Comparative Embryology, DNA, Biogeography, Comparative Anatomy
  • Organisms must adapt to existing conditions or face extinction.

Classification of Species

  • A mnemonic device for remembering the order of classification: Dashing King Philip Came Over For Good Soup.
  • From broadest to most specific: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
  • Each level includes a larger number of organisms.
  • Species is the least specific group.

Phylogenetic Systematics

  • Phylogeny - A diagram showing branching events of related species across evolution.
  • Systematics - Uses fossils, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships and classify organisms.

Phylogeny Vocabulary

  • Branch Point - Represents the divergence of two species.
  • Rooted Tree - Includes a branch representing the last common ancestor of all taxa.
  • Sister Taxa - Groups that share an immediate common ancestor.
  • Basal Taxon - Diverges early in the history of a group and originates near that common ancestor of the group.

Homologous vs. Analogous

  • Homology - Similarity due to shared ancestry.
  • Analogy - Similarity due to convergent evolution (similar environmental pressures lead to similar adaptations).
  • Systematists distinguish between these in constructing phylogenies.

Cladistics

  • Cladistics groups organisms by common descent.
  • Clade - a group of species that includes an ancestor species and all its descendants.
  • Clades can be nested in larger clades.
  • Monophyletic - A clade that includes an ancestor species and all its descendants.
  • Paraphyletic - A clade that includes an ancestor species and some but not all of its descendants.
  • Polyphyletic - A clade that consists of various species with different ancestors.

Shared Ancestral and Derived Characters

  • Shared Ancestral Character (Symplesiomorphy) - A trait shared by two or more taxa and their earliest common ancestor.
  • Shared Derived Character (Synapomorphy) - A trait shared by two or more taxa and their most recent common ancestor, but not by more distant ancestors.
  • Systematists utilize these to categorize organisms.

How are Cladistics and Phylogenies different?

  • Cladistics - Focuses on classifying organisms based on shared ancestry, using a specific method to group species into clades and utilizing various data sources (morphological, genetic, etc.) to identify evolutionary relationships, producing cladograms (diagrams of relationships).
  • Phylogenies - Show evolutionary history and relationships between species or groups of species and produces phylogenetic trees to illustrate evolutionary history.

Animal Characteristics (Invertebrates & Vertebrates)

  • Eukaryotic
  • Multicellular
  • Heterotrophic
  • Internal digestion
  • Epithelial and connective tissue
  • Muscle and nervous tissue

Diversity of Extant Vertebrates

  • A pie chart displays the diversity of extant vertebrates based on specific classes of species – showing the number in each class of extant vertebrates.

5 Chordate Characteristics

  • Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
  • Notochord
  • Pharyngeal slits
  • Endostyle
  • Post-anal tail

Phylogeny of the Animal Kingdom

  • A simplified phylogeny chart shows the evolutionary relationships between major animal groups. Emphasizing evolutionary characteristics.

Extant Nonvertebrate Chordates

  • Cephalochordata (lancelets)
  • Urochordata (sea squirts)

Cephalochordata

  • Invertebrates (nonvertebrate) chordate.
  • No backbone
  • Retains all 5 chordate characteristics as adults.
  • Filter feeders.
  • V-shaped myomeres for propulsion.
  • Lancelet/Amphioxus

Urochordata

  • Invertebrates (nonvertebrate) chordate
  • No backbone
  • Retains chordate characteristics only in larval phase.
  • Pharyngeal slits as adults
  • Tunic as a covering

What Distinguishes a Vertebrate?

  • Vertebrae (bones forming the spinal column).
  • Vertebrae replace the notochord
  • Encircling the nerve cord.
  • Cranium made of bone.

Mineralized Tissues of Vertebrates

  • Enamel (~96%)
  • Dentine (~90%)
  • Enameloid (~96%)
  • Bone (~70%)
  • Mineralized cartilage (~70%)
  • Cementum (~45%) These are found in teeth, some fish scales and in the mineralized exoskeleton of ancestral vertebrates.

Axial Musculature

  • Axial muscles are used for locomotion – they have V shaped, W shaped and more complex arrangements.

Basic Vertebrate Systems - The Alimentary System

  • Vertebrates eat bite-sized pieces of food; have a stomach and intestines.

Basic Vertebrate Systems - The Cardiovascular System

  • Closed circulatory systems.

Basic Vertebrate Systems - Excretory System

  • Kidneys are the functional units - nephron.

Basic Vertebrate Systems - The Reproductive System

  • Gonads become paired in vertebrates instead of singular.

Basic Vertebrate Systems - The Sensory System

  • Chemosensation - Taste and smell.
  • Vision - similar eye structures with lens, iris, muscles and retina, photoreceptors
  • Electroreception - sense electrical impulses (certain fish).
  • Mechanoreception - senses water movements.

Development of Tripartite Brain

  • Forebrain - olfactory and visual sensory structures; integrative and associative area.
  • Midbrain - Incoming info from hearing and touch; outgoing motor responses.
  • Hindbrain - controls involuntary motor activities (respiration, circulation).

Duplication of Hox Genes

  • Hox genes regulate developmental genes; arranged sequentially and control body structures, arranged in the same order as the structures they control along the anterior-posterior axis.
  • All animals have Hox genes but vertebrates have as many as 13 clusters due to duplication events.

Neural Crest Development

  • Only occurs in vertebrates.
  • Considered a 4th germinal layer – giving rise to many cell types.
  • Migratory and multipotent.
  • Forms adrenal glands, melanocytes, secretory cells of gut and smooth muscle tissue lining aorta.

Adult Tissue Types

  • Epithelial tissues – tightly connected cells forming boundaries; in sheets.
  • Muscle tissues – contain actin and myosin, for contraction.
  • Neural tissues – includes neurons and glial cells.
  • Connective tissues – provide structural support (bone, cartilage, adipose tissues, blood, tendons, and ligaments).

Vertebrate Body Development

  • Bodies form from 3 germ layers (tissue layers)
  • Ectoderm - forms epidermis, lining of most parts of the digestive system and most of the nervous system.
  • Mesoderm – forms muscles, skeleton, etc., connective tissues, circulatory systems, urogenital systems.
  • Endoderm - innermost layer, forms rest of the digestive tract, most respiratory surfaces, taste buds, thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus glands.

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Related Documents

Vertebrate Zoology Chapters 1 & 2 PDF

Description

Test your knowledge of key concepts in evolutionary biology and cladistics. This quiz covers topics like homologies, synapomorphies, and the significance of morphological and molecular evidence in phylogenetics. Challenge yourself to see how well you understand the fundamentals of phylogeny and zoology.

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