Evidence-Based Treatments and Research Methods
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good scientific theory?

  • It has parsimony.
  • It is based on personal opinions and beliefs. (correct)
  • It is supported by empirical data.
  • It is falsifiable.

    • What is the main purpose of basic research?

  • To solve practical problems in the real world.
  • To enhance the general understanding of a particular topic. (correct)
  • To translate findings from basic research into practical applications.
  • To improve existing treatments or interventions.

    • In the context of scientific research, what is empiricism?

  • The use of evidence from our senses to make conclusions. (correct)
  • The use of intuition and personal experience to draw conclusions.
  • The reliance on anecdotal evidence and personal testimonies.
  • The application of theoretical frameworks to real-world problems.

    • Which research approach focuses on collecting data in the form of numbers and values?

    <p>Quantitative research (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a step in the theory-data cycle?

    <p>Conduct peer review. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of translational research?

    <p>To apply findings from basic research to solve real-world problems. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the “R value” of a journal indicate?

    <p>The impact factor of the journal based on citations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of translational research in action?

    <p>A scientist develops a new drug to treat a specific disease. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of 'confounding' as it relates to research?

    <p>A factor that interferes with the ability to determine the true cause of an observed effect (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a common flaw of intuition?

    <p>Random assignment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of research source is considered the most reliable for scientific information?

    <p>Scientific peer-reviewed sources (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes an 'empirical journal article'?

    <p>A report of a new research study (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of research claim describes a relationship between two variables, but does not specify a causal direction?

    <p>Association claim (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a component of a typical research article?

    <p>Hypothesis (F)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of variable is directly controlled and manipulated by the researcher?

    <p>Manipulated variable (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an operational definition?

    <p>A precise description of how a variable will be measured (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of research question focuses on identifying patterns and potential relationships between variables?

    <p>Correlational (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of research claim?

    <p>Statistical claim (B), Experimental claim (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a 'correlation coefficient'?

    <p>A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of validity focuses on the generalizability of research findings to other people, places, and times?

    <p>External validity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between a 'population' and a 'sample' in research?

    <p>A population is the entire group of interest, while a sample is a subset of that group selected for study (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about 'representative samples'?

    <p>They accurately reflect the characteristics of the population. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is 'statistical validity' in the context of association claims?

    <p>How strong and accurate the association between the variables is (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following techniques is used to increase confidence in the findings of a study?

    <p>Replication (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a double-barreled question?

    <p>A question that asks about two separate issues at once. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one strategy to combat acquiescence in survey responses?

    <p>Word the same question in opposite ways. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of sampling method?

    <p>Systematic Sampling (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'fence-sitting' refer to in survey responses?

    <p>Answering neutrally by selecting the center option. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can construct validity be threatened by observational research?

    <p>Through observer bias and expectancy effects. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What constitutes a representative sample?

    <p>A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a negatively worded question likely to lead to?

    <p>Confusion and potential double-negatives. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal when formulating leading questions?

    <p>To encourage a specific type of response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'reactivity' refer to in observational research?

    <p>Behavioral changes due to observer influence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of sampling involves participants recommending others of a similar type?

    <p>Snowball Sampling (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a criteria for interrogating causal claims?

    <p>Random Assignment (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between a Type I error and a Type II error?

    <p>Type I error is a false positive, while Type II error is a false negative. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'temporal precedence' refer to in the context of causal claims?

    <p>The cause must occur before the effect. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following research studies involved assigning participants to roles as either 'prisoners' or 'guards'?

    <p>Stanford Prison Experiment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ethical principle focuses on ensuring that participants in a study are not exposed to unnecessary harm?

    <p>Beneficence (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between a conceptual variable and an operational variable?

    <p>A conceptual variable is a theoretical construct, while an operational variable is a concrete way of measuring it. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of measurement scale involves categories that are qualitatively distinct and have no inherent order?

    <p>Nominal (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reliability is measured by examining the consistency of scores across multiple administrations of a measure over time?

    <p>Test-retest Reliability (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Cronbach's alpha measure?

    <p>The reliability of multi-item measures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of validity refers to the extent to which a measure correlates with other measures of the same construct?

    <p>Convergent Validity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When asking people to agree or disagree with a statement on a scale, which type of question is being used?

    <p>Likert Scale Question (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a concrete example of an operational definition of the variable 'stress'?

    <p>The level of cortisol in the bloodstream (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a standard ethical guideline for research involving animals?

    <p>Repetition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the principle of justice require researchers to consider in their research?

    <p>The participants in the research should be representative of the population that will benefit from the findings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of research ethics, what is meant by 'informed consent'?

    <p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an example of a self-report measure?

    <p>A study observing the amount of time people spend looking at their phones (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Evidence-Based Treatments

    Therapies supported by scientific research and data.

    Empiricism

    Using evidence from our senses to draw conclusions.

    Quantitative Methods

    Collecting empirical information in numerical form.

    Qualitative Methods

    Collecting information in descriptive, non-numerical ways.

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    Theory-Data Cycle

    A process of asking questions, making predictions, and collecting data.

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    Hypothesis

    Predictions about research outcomes based on theory.

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    Translational Research

    Applying basic research findings to solve specific problems.

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    Applied Research

    Research conducted to solve practical, real-world problems.

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    Semantic Differential Format

    A scale for rating a target using adjectives as anchors.

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    Leading Questions

    Questions that influence responses by their wording.

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    Double-Barreled Question

    Asks two questions in one, causing confusion.

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    Negatively Worded Question

    Contains negative phrasing which may confuse respondents.

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    Order of Questions Influence

    The sequence of questions can affect responses.

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    Response Set

    Responding similarly to multiple questions without consideration.

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    Acquiescence Bias

    Tendency to agree with statements rather than evaluate them.

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    Fence-Sitting

    Choosing a neutral response instead of taking a side.

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    Observer Bias

    Observers see what they expect, skewing results.

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    Probability Sampling

    Every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.

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    Type I error

    False positive; assuming an association when there isn't one.

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    Type II error

    False negative; assuming no association when there is one.

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    Covariance

    A relationship where changes in one variable occur with changes in another.

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    Temporal Precedence

    The requirement that one variable must precede another in time.

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    Internal Validity

    The degree to which a study eliminates alternative explanations for results.

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    Manipulated Variable

    The independent variable that researchers change during an experiment.

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    Measured Variable

    The dependent variable that researchers observe to see changes.

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    Self-report Measure

    Collecting data through questionnaires or interviews from participants.

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    Observational Measure

    Recording observed behaviors or physical traces to gather data.

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    Physiological Measure

    Using biological data (e.g., heart rate, brain activity) to measure variables.

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    Reliability

    The consistency of a measure across different instances.

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    Validity

    Whether a measure accurately reflects the construct it's intended to measure.

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    Construct Validity

    The extent to which a test measures the construct it claims to measure.

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    Face Validity

    When a measure appears to assess the intended construct at face value.

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    Criterion Validity

    Whether a measure correlates with a concrete outcome it should relate to.

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    Research vs Experience

    Research includes comparisons to control potential confounds; experience does not.

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    Systematic Comparison

    A method to control potential confounding variables in research.

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    Probabilistic Research

    Behavioral research findings are not expected to apply universally.

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    Confirmation Bias

    The tendency to favor information that supports existing beliefs.

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    Types of Research Claims

    Frequency claims, association claims, and causal claims are the three main types.

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    Frequency Claims

    Claims that describe the occurrence of a single variable.

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    Association Claims

    Claims that describe the relationship between two related variables.

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    Causal Claims

    Claims that assert one variable causes a change in another variable.

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    Correlation Coefficient (r)

    A statistic that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

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    Sampling

    The process of selecting individuals from a population for study.

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    Representative Sample

    A sample that reflects important characteristics of the population.

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    Statistical Validity

    Validity measuring the accuracy and reliability of conclusions drawn from data.

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    Operational Definition

    Description specifying how a variable will be measured in a study.

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    Study Notes

    Evidence-Based Treatments and Research Methods

    • Evidence-based treatments are therapies supported by scientific research.
    • Critical consumers of research should evaluate the source of information, the evidence supporting claims, and potential biases.
    • Empiricism relies on sensory evidence to draw conclusions.
    • Quantitative methods use numerical data for analysis; qualitative methods use descriptive details.
    • The theory-data cycle involves forming questions, making predictions, collecting data, and reflecting on findings.
    • A theory is a set of statements explaining variable relationships; a hypothesis predicts research outcomes based on theory.
    • Data are observations; a good theory is supported by data, falsifiable, and parsimonious.
    • Applied research aims to solve practical problems; basic research expands knowledge.
    • Translational research bridges basic and applied research, applying findings from basic research to practical problems.
    • This is often described as "bench to bedside" research.
    • Multidisciplinary approaches involve collaborations among different professionals for translational research.
    • Basic research -> Translational research -> Applied research
    • Research in journals is peer-reviewed.

    Research vs. Experience and Scientific Sources

    • Research methods provide comparisons; experience lacks comparison groups and confounding variables.
    • Research minimizes confounding variables.
    • Behavioral research is probabilistic, not definitive.
    • Intuition flaws include bias, the availability heuristic (underrepresentation of memorable events), and confirmation bias (favoring supporting information).
    • We may be blind to our own biases.
    • Scientific, peer-reviewed sources are prioritized over public-access sources.
    • Scientific sources include journal articles, chapters in edited books, and full-length books (empirical and review articles, meta-analyses).

    Research Claims and Validities

    • Research claims involve frequency, association, and causal claims.
    • Research validity includes construct, external, statistical, and internal validity.
    • Variables are measured or manipulated.
    • Operational definitions specify how a concept will be measured.
    • Continuous variables have two or more levels; constant variables remain unchanged.
    • Research questions are descriptive (measuring), correlational (identifying patterns), or experimental (determining relationships).
    • Frequency claims focus on one variable.
    • Association claims link two variables.
    • Causal claims establish cause-and-effect relationships.

    Correlation and Significance

    • Correlation coefficients (r) describe the strength and direction of relationships between two variables.
    • Positive correlations indicate that high values of one variable are related to high values of the other.
    • Negative correlations indicate that high values of one variable are related to low values of the other.
    • Zero correlations mean no relationship.
    • Statistical validity examines the accuracy and reliability of the study's conclusions.
    • Points estimate and confidence intervals (CI) assess the precision of conclusions.

    Research Ethics and Validity

    • Studies must uphold ethical principles.
    • The Belmont Report outlines three ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
    • Research involving animals should adhere to the three Rs (replacement, refinement, reduction).
    • Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure, while validity concerns whether the measure assesses the intended concept.

    Measuring Variables

    • Conceptual variables are abstract constructs being studied.
    • Operational variables are concrete measures of concepts.
    • Measuring variables can be self-report, observational, or physiological.
    • Self-report involves participant responses to questions.
    • Observational measurements entail observing behavior or physical traces.
    • Physiological measures involve recording biological data.

    Categorical vs Quantitative Variables

    • Categorical/nominal variables represent distinct categories.
    • Quantitative variables represent numerical values.
    • Ordinal scales indicate ranked order but not equal intervals.
    • Interval scales have equal intervals but not a true zero point.
    • Ratio scales have equal intervals and a true zero point.

    Reliability and Validity of Measurement Tools

    • Reliability assesses consistency; validity ensures the measure assesses the intended concept.
    • Test-retest reliability examines consistency across time.
    • Interrater reliability measures consistency among observers.
    • Internal reliability assesses consistency within a measure.
    • Cronbach’s alpha estimates internal consistency.
    • Construct validity examines the appropriateness of operational definitions.
      • Face validity concerns if the measure appears to measure what it intends to measure.
      • Content validity assesses if the measure includes all necessary components.
      • Criterion validity examines if the measure correlates with a relevant outcome.
      • Known-groups paradigm distinguishes groups with distinct behaviors.
      • Convergent validity reveals similarity between measures of the same construct.
      • Discriminant/divergent validity finds difference between measures of distinct constructs.

    Surveys and Polls

    • Construct Validity of surveys relies on effective questioning and responses.
    • Open-ended questions allow for varied responses.
    • Forced choice questions require selecting between options.
    • Likert scales measure agreement/disagreement.
    • Semantic differential formats involve rating using anchored adjectives.
    • Leading questions can bias responses; double-barreled questions ask multiple things.
    • Negatively worded questions lead to confusion.
    • Response order and context can influence answers.
    • Response sets (acquiescence, fence-sitting, faking) can compromise validity.

    Behavioural Observations

    • Observational research involves recording behavior.
    • Observer bias and effects can distort observations.
    • Reactivity occurs when participants change behavior due to being observed.
    • Masked/blind design prevents observer bias.

    Interviews

    • Interviews are a qualitative research method for collecting data.
    • Informants are experts on a particular topic and provide insights.
    • Interviews on small groups provide specific insights from those with relevant experience.

    Sampling

    • Populations are the entire groups of interest.
    • Samples are subsets of populations.
    • Representative samples accurately reflect the population.
    • Convenience sampling is easy but biased; self-selection relies on volunteers.
    • Probability sampling gives each population member an equal chance of selection.
    • Simple random sampling involves randomly selecting participants.

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    Description

    Explore the principles of evidence-based treatments that are guided by scientific research methodologies. This quiz covers essential concepts such as the theory-data cycle, types of research, and the importance of evaluating sources. Test your understanding of empirical evidence and various research approaches in psychology.

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