European History: Key Concepts and Movements

Unit 1: Renaissance and Exploration (c. 1450 - с. 1648)

• Renaissance art moved away from religious imagery of the Middle Ages, embracing human subjects with realism. Artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael used techniques like perspective and chiaroscuro.
• Polyphonic music, with multiple independent vocal lines, became popular, with composers like Josquin des Prez.
• Commoners often struggled during the Renaissance due to agrarian lifestyles, feudal obligations, and limited economic opportunities in rural areas, although market economy slowly evolved.
• Women during the Renaissance held limited roles, mainly confined to domestic duties, though some affluent women were educated. Notable female figures such as Isabella d'Este and Christine de Pizan championed women's intellectual capabilities.
• The Renaissance emphasized classical antiquity, leading to humanism and secular thought . Simultaneously, the Age of Discovery witnessed European expansion through voyages, new trade routes, and exploration.
• The Fall of Constantinople (1453) spurred the search for new trade routes to Asia, prompting explorations by Portuguese and Spanish navigators.
• The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal.
• The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Columbus's voyages, dramatically altered global ecosystems and economies by exchanging plants, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.
• Humanism is an intellectual movement focusing on human potential.
• Secularism is the principle of separating state from religious institutions.

Topic 1.2 Italian Renaissance

• The Italian Renaissance was a period marked by the revival of classical learning, advancements in art, and new political ideas.
• Wealthy patrons, like the Medici family, commissioned and supported artists exploring humanism and secular themes.
• Great works of art, like Leonardo da Vinci's "The Last Supper," showcases techniques like perspective.
• Machiavelli's "The Prince" examined political power and the nature of leadership during the Renaissance era.
• Leonardo da Vinci epitomized the era's artistic spirit and explored various fields.
• Key artistic achievements were characterized by patronage.

Topic 1.3 Northern Renaissance

• The Northern Renaissance focused on religious themes, unlike its Italian counterpart, emphasizing Christian humanism.
• Scholars like Erasmus aimed to reform the Church through humanist principles, advocating return to a simple Christian piety.
• Northern Renaissance artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, were known for detailed depictions of religious subjects and human experience.

Topic 1.4 The Printing Press

• Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press revolutionized the dissemination of information during the Renaissance.
• Increased availability of printed materials led to greater literacy rates among the urban middle class.
• The printing press aided the spread of Renaissance and Reformation ideas.
• Gutenberg's Bible was the first major printed book using movable type.

Topic 1.5 New Monarchies

• New Monarchies in the 15th and 16th centuries consolidated power by limiting the influence of the nobility and the Church.
• The Medici Family served as important patrons, significantly influencing Florence's cultural landscape.
• Rulers like Henry VII of England and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain worked to build efficient bureaucracies, implement tax reforms, and establish standing armies.
• This laid groundwork for modern nation-states that focused on stability and economic progress.
• Star Chamber was a court established by Henry VII to curb noble power.

Topic 1.6 Technological Advances and the Age of Exploration

• Technological advancements, such as the astrolabe, magnetic compass, and the caravel ship, aided European exploration and maritime trade in the Age of Discovery.
• These advancements led to increased interactions with Africa, Asia, and the Americas, fundamentally altering global trade and cultural exchanges.

Topic 1.7 Rivals on the World Stage

• Intense rivalries and competition marked the expansion of European powers in the world stage.
• Nations such as Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the Netherlands competed for dominance over trade routes and colonial territories.
• Conflicts such as the War of Spanish Succession exemplified international relations, shaping global trade.

Topic 1.8 Colonial Expansion and Columbian Exchange

• Colonial expansion led to the Columbian Exchange, a wide-ranging exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Americas, Europe, and Africa.
• European colonization led to the introduction of crops such as wheat and sugarcane in the Americas, impacting diets and ecosystems worldwide.
• The exchange of diseases, like smallpox, devastated indigenous populations in the Americas and transformed global demographics.

Topic 1.9 The Slave Trade

• The transatlantic slave trade was a critical element of European colonial expansion, driven by the demand for labor on plantations in the Americas.
• The slave trade was part of a complex "triangular trade" involving the exchange of European goods, enslaved Africans, and agricultural products from the Americas.
• These exchanges had devastating effects on African societies, impacting generations due to migration and loss of life.

Topic 1.10 The Commercial Revolution

• The Commercial Revolution was a period of European economic expansion, influenced by the rise of capitalism, expansion of trade, and development of financial institutions.
• Joint-stock companies and improved banking systems boosted the large-scale economy.
• The enclosure movement converted common lands into private holdings, increasing agricultural efficiency but causing displacement of rural workers, affecting social dynamics.

Topic 1.11 Causation in the Renaissance and Age of Discovery

• The Renaissance and Age of Discovery were periods of momentous cultural, economic, and political changes in Europe.
• The Renaissance sparked a revival of classical learning and humanism, shifting focus to human potential, exploration, and empirical observation.
• Technological innovations and the desire for new trade routes propelled the Age of Exploration, leading to significant interactions with the Americas.

Unit 2: Age of Reformation (c. 1450 c. 1648)

• The Protestant Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to religious conflict and the formation of various Protestant denominations.
• Artists were influenced by these changes, shifting artistic focus away from religious imagery towards simpler, iconoclastic themes.
• Martin Luther's 95 Theses sparked a religious reformation by challenging Catholic Church practices and doctrines.
• Key figures like Luther and Calvin broadened religious diversity.
• Religious conflicts frequently intersected with political tensions.
• The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation) responded to the Protestant Reformation that included the Council of Trent.

Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism (c. 1648 - с. 1815)

• Absolutist rulers in Europe centralized power and wealth, often justified by divine right.
• Monarchs like Louis XIV of France and Peter the Great of Russia exemplify these approaches, focusing on strengthening their respective positions in Europe.
• Constitutionalism emerged as a distinct approach to governance, placing limits on monarchical power.
• Concepts such as divine right, sovereignty, bureaucracy, and constitutionalism were significant to understanding political developments in Europe.
• Events like the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution cemented the concept of constitutionalism.
• The Congress of Vienna signaled a shift by attempting to return to traditional monarchies and suppress revolutionary movements.

Unit 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments (c. 1648 - c. 1815)

• The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment fostered significant innovations in the 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason and scientific methodologies.
• Philosophers like Bacon, Descartes, and Locke advanced new ideas on knowledge, human nature, and government.
• Enlightenment thinkers emphasized individual rights, the separation of powers, and social contracts.
• Artistic and musical movements, such as Rococo and Neoclassicism, reflected the ideals of the era.

Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century (c. 1648 c. 1815)

• The late 18th century was characterized by economic hardship and political tensions.
• The rise of popular sovereignty and Enlightenment ideas contributed to revolutionary movements in Europe and the Americas.
• The French Revolution was a pivotal moment in history marked by the overthrow of the monarchy, social upheaval, and the spread of revolutionary ideals.
• Napoleon's rise to power and subsequent defeat marked a watershed moment in European history.
• The Congress of Vienna aimed to restore stability after the Napoleonic Wars.
• The Romantic movement challenged the emphasis on reason in the Enlightenment.