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Questions and Answers
What significant evidence for bipedality was preserved in volcanic ash in Laetoli, Tanzania?
What significant evidence for bipedality was preserved in volcanic ash in Laetoli, Tanzania?
Why did bipedality become the primary adaptation for hominids?
Why did bipedality become the primary adaptation for hominids?
What characteristic distinguishes Australopithecus afarensis as an efficient biped?
What characteristic distinguishes Australopithecus afarensis as an efficient biped?
What is the valgus angle important for in bipedal locomotion?
What is the valgus angle important for in bipedal locomotion?
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Which hominid is noted as the first efficient walker despite having a small brain similar to a chimpanzee's?
Which hominid is noted as the first efficient walker despite having a small brain similar to a chimpanzee's?
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What is a key characteristic of tapeworms regarding their digestive system?
What is a key characteristic of tapeworms regarding their digestive system?
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What adaptation helps tapeworms maintain their position in the host's gut?
What adaptation helps tapeworms maintain their position in the host's gut?
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Which of the following is NOT a feature of parasitic flukes and tapeworms?
Which of the following is NOT a feature of parasitic flukes and tapeworms?
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What is the primary host for the liver fluke, Fasciola Hepatica?
What is the primary host for the liver fluke, Fasciola Hepatica?
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How do humans typically become infected with beef and pork tapeworms?
How do humans typically become infected with beef and pork tapeworms?
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In the life cycle of Schistosoma, which method is used for entry into the human body?
In the life cycle of Schistosoma, which method is used for entry into the human body?
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What mechanism enables the tegument of tapeworms to facilitate nutrient absorption?
What mechanism enables the tegument of tapeworms to facilitate nutrient absorption?
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What is praziquantel used to treat?
What is praziquantel used to treat?
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Where do adult Ascaris lumbricoides nematodes reside in the human body?
Where do adult Ascaris lumbricoides nematodes reside in the human body?
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What mechanism primarily allows Trichinella spiralis to infect humans?
What mechanism primarily allows Trichinella spiralis to infect humans?
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Which of the following is a symptom of Trichinellosis caused by Trichinella spiralis?
Which of the following is a symptom of Trichinellosis caused by Trichinella spiralis?
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Which group of parasites causes diseases collectively referred to as filariasis?
Which group of parasites causes diseases collectively referred to as filariasis?
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What is a major consequence of lymphatic infection by filarial worms leading to elephantiasis?
What is a major consequence of lymphatic infection by filarial worms leading to elephantiasis?
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Which nematode is known to cause itching and reinfection in children?
Which nematode is known to cause itching and reinfection in children?
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What is the main transmission method for the parasites causing Bancroftian elephantiasis?
What is the main transmission method for the parasites causing Bancroftian elephantiasis?
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What characteristic defines the body structure of nematodes?
What characteristic defines the body structure of nematodes?
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What contributes to tissue destruction and cavity formation in the host lung during TB infection?
What contributes to tissue destruction and cavity formation in the host lung during TB infection?
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During what period did most of the evolutionary history of tuberculosis (TB) occur with humans?
During what period did most of the evolutionary history of tuberculosis (TB) occur with humans?
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Which statement about modern TB compared to ancient TB is correct?
Which statement about modern TB compared to ancient TB is correct?
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What is one of the unique characteristics of TB that allows for its potential resistance to antibiotics?
What is one of the unique characteristics of TB that allows for its potential resistance to antibiotics?
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What is a key trait of sexual selection as described by Darwin?
What is a key trait of sexual selection as described by Darwin?
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What does intersexual selection involve?
What does intersexual selection involve?
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Which of the following is an example of intrasexual selection?
Which of the following is an example of intrasexual selection?
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What can be inferred about the role of population density in the evolution of TB?
What can be inferred about the role of population density in the evolution of TB?
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What is the main reason nausea and vomiting in pregnancy peak in the first trimester?
What is the main reason nausea and vomiting in pregnancy peak in the first trimester?
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What do cravings for certain foods during pregnancy indicate?
What do cravings for certain foods during pregnancy indicate?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding food aversions in pregnant women?
Which of the following statements is true regarding food aversions in pregnant women?
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How does nausea and vomiting of pregnancy correlate with pregnancy outcomes?
How does nausea and vomiting of pregnancy correlate with pregnancy outcomes?
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What is the relationship between dietary exposure and nausea during pregnancy?
What is the relationship between dietary exposure and nausea during pregnancy?
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Which of the following predictions is supported by evidence presented in the content?
Which of the following predictions is supported by evidence presented in the content?
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What conclusion can be drawn regarding morning sickness during pregnancy?
What conclusion can be drawn regarding morning sickness during pregnancy?
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Which of the following foods are pregnant women most likely to develop aversions to?
Which of the following foods are pregnant women most likely to develop aversions to?
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What distinguishes a phylogram from a cladogram?
What distinguishes a phylogram from a cladogram?
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What subgroup of mammals includes marsupials and placental mammals?
What subgroup of mammals includes marsupials and placental mammals?
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Why was morphological comparison inadequate for reconstructing phylogenetic trees?
Why was morphological comparison inadequate for reconstructing phylogenetic trees?
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What major shift occurred in the classification of mammals based on DNA research?
What major shift occurred in the classification of mammals based on DNA research?
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What is a characteristic of the subclass Prototheria?
What is a characteristic of the subclass Prototheria?
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How did researchers determine the relatedness of animals using genetic information?
How did researchers determine the relatedness of animals using genetic information?
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What limitation did researchers face when trying to base phylogenetic trees on morphology?
What limitation did researchers face when trying to base phylogenetic trees on morphology?
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When did the diversification of mammals occur?
When did the diversification of mammals occur?
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Study Notes
Eukaryotic Evolution
- 3.5 billion years ago, there was very little oxygen in the atmosphere
- Prokaryotes developed, increasing atmospheric oxygen
- This allowed single-celled eukaryotes to develop
- The ancestor of modern eukaryotes engulfed a heterotrophic aerobic prokaryote via phagocytosis
- This process made the cell more efficient
- This was passed down through generations, becoming the mitochondrion
- Eukaryotic cells can use oxygen
Taxonomy
- Living organisms are divided into three domains: bacteria, archaea, and eukarya
- Kingdom Protista is no longer recognized
- Protists are eukaryotes that are neither plants, animals, nor fungi
Diplomonads
- Lack plastids and have highly reduced mitochondria
- Lack DNA, electron transport chain, and enzymes of the citric acid cycle
- Mostly found in anaerobic environments
- Two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella
- Example: Giardia (common intestinal parasite, diarrhea, dehydration)
Kinetoplastids
- Have a single large mitochondrion with a kinetoplast
- Can be free-living or parasites of animals, plants, and other protists
- Example: Trypanosoma (parasites of vertebrate blood, cause sleeping sickness in Africa, Chagas disease in South America)
Apicomplexans
- Placed in Alveolata clade, which has membrane-bound sacs under the plasma membrane
- All are animal parasites
- Example: Plasmodium (causes malaria)
Rhizopodia/Amoebozoans
- Live in any moist/aquatic habitat
- Ectocommensal or endosymbiotic
- Example: Entamoeba histolytica (causes amoebic dysentery)
Platyhelminthes
- Triploblastic, acoelomate, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented worms
- Parasitic or free-living
- Incomplete gut or no gut system
- Example: Flukes and tapeworms
Nematodes
- Triploblastic, pseudocoelomate, bilaterally symmetrical
- Have a complete gut
- Free-living in most moist aquatic habitats, soil
- Example: Ascaris lumbricoides (intestinal parasite), Trichinella spiralis (causes trichinosis), Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm), and filarial worms (cause elephantiasis)
Arthropoda Characteristics And Phobias
- Triploblastic, coelomate, bilaterally symmetrical
- Body divided into segments (tagmata)
- Hard exoskeleton (chitin), shed periodically
- Insect nuisance
- Some species are numerous
- Some are pests
- Arachnophobia: fear of spiders; Entomophobia: fear of insects
Arthropoda Venoms
- Insects sting to defend nest
- Worker bees and wasps have unbarbed stingers, therefore can reuse them
- Honeybee stingers are barbed; therefore, unable to reuse them
- Wasp venom causes vasodilation and muscle relaxation
- Insect venoms could be polypeptides
Insects as disease vectors
- Insects transmit various diseases, from protists to viruses and nematodes
- Mechanical and biological transmission
- Example: mosquitos transmit malaria, yellow fever
Specific Disease Types
- Pediculosis (body lice): Infestation of hair with lice
- Scabies (scabies mite): Burrows in skin causing itching, rashes
- Schistosomiasis (trematodes): Enters body through skin
- Filariasis: Enters via mosquito bite, causes swelling in lymphatic system (elephantiasis)
- Malaria (Plasmodium): Transmitted by Anopheles mosquito
Host-Parasite Interactions
- Parasites need the host to survive for transmission & reproduce
- Naive body reacts with a strong inflammatory response
- Selection has shaped hosts to downregulate response
- Host & parasite coevolve
- Example: Multiple sclerosis, symptoms reduced in patients with worm infections
The Limits of Natural Selection
- Humans' unique characteristics
- Primitive vs. derived traits
- There are many differences between apes and monkeys
- Humans are larger and heavier
- Humans are often able to walk on two legs
- Humans have a broader chest
- Humans rely more on vision, less on smell
- Humans have larger brains relative to body size
- We use tools and have complex social lives
Evolution
- DNA suggests humans are 96% identical to apes
- Evolutionary changes in traits, genetic variation, and reproductive success
- Examples: Bipedalism, large brains, tool use
- Natural selection edits/selects existing traits
Human Evolutionary Biology
- Evolution is descent with modification
- Natural selection to occur there must be variation in traits, variable reproductive success among those with different traits, and heritability for traits
- Human traits: variations in reproductive success, age at reproduction, physical characteristics, and behavior
Evolutionary Trade-offs
- Trade-offs between traits/characteristics
- Examples: Bipedalism in humans versus strength
- Vitamin C path: Humans lose the synthesis of vitamin C
- Humans must have a vitamin C diet
Comparative Genomics
- Mutations in the genetic code
- Point mutations: Changes in one base pair
- Wild-type genes: Most common alleles
- Types of mutations
- Silent substitution: No effect on protein
- Missense mutation: Different amino acid
- Nonsense mutation: Premature stop codon
- Deletions/insertions: Shift in reading frame
The Human Genome Project
- Aimed to map and sequence the human DNA
- Aims to chart variations in DNA
- Aims to map human genes
- Began to label the functions of genes, other parts of genome
- Sequence the genomes of other model organisms
Tree of Life
- Molecular mechanisms allowing mammals extraordinary longevity
- Telomeres: Contribute to aging because they shorten with each cell replication
- Bats: maintain telomere lengths without telomerase (which lengths telomeres but causes cancer)
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Description
Explore the fascinating journey of eukaryotic evolution, detailing the origins of eukaryotic cells and their classifications. Understand the significance of prokaryotes in the increase of atmospheric oxygen and learn about distinct eukaryotic groups like diplomonads and kinetoplastids. Test your knowledge on the taxonomy of living organisms and their adaptations.
