Ethiopia and Human Evolution

• Ethiopia and the Horn exhibit significant ethnic and linguistic diversity.

Human Evolution

• Human evolution represents a small portion of Earth's history, which began around 4.5 billion years ago.
• Blue-green algae, small plants, fishes, and birds appeared approximately 800 million years ago.
• Primates emerged from the placental mammal lineage between 200-170 million years ago.
• The East African Rift Valley is considered the cradle of humanity.
• Chororapithecus, dating back 10 million years, was discovered in Anchar, West Hararghe.
• Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba, dating back 5.8-5.2 million years, was found in Middle Awash.
• Ardipithicus ramidus, dating back 4.2 million years, was discovered in Aramis, Afar, in 1994.
• Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie.

Genus Homo

• Homo habilis is associated with skillful use of hands.
• Homo habilis existed 1.9 million years ago and remains have been found in the Lower Omo.
• Homo erectus is associated with walking upright.
• Homo erectus was discovered at Melka-Kunture, Konso Gardula, and Gadeb, having a brain size of 900-1100 cc and existed 1.6 million years ago.
• Homo erectus likely originated in Africa and then spread worldwide.
• Archaic Homosapiens, known as "knowledgeable human beings", existed 400,000 years ago.
• The Archaic Homosapiens named Bodo had a brain size of 1300-1400cc, were discovered in Middle Awash.
• Homo sapiens sapiens existed 100,000 years ago.
• Homo sapiens sapiens were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish around Lower Omo in 1967.
• Homo sapiens idaltu, lived in Middle Awash around 160,000 years ago and were found in Middle Awash in 1997.

Cultural Evolution

• Cultural evolution relates to technological changes that caused socio-economic transformation.
• Cultural evolution can be grouped into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
• Stone tools can be grouped into Mode I, Mode II, and Mode III, based on their features, methods, and production period.

Stone Tool Technologies

• Mode I (Olduwan) tools are crude, mono-facial styles produced by direct percussion.
• Mode II (Acheulean) tools are produced with indirect percussion using a hand-ax or hammer, and are characterized by bifacial, pointed, and convex features.
• Mode III (Sangoon) tools are characterized by flexible and fine form produced using obsidian.

Stone Age Sub-Periods

• Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) extends from 3.4 million to 11,000 years B.P.
• During the Paleolithic period, humans lived in caves and developed language, they used stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials for food and clothing and also had sex-age labor division.
• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) existed from 11,000 to 10,000 B.P.
• Neolithic (New Stone Age) existed from 10,000 to 6,000 B.P.
• During the Neolithic period, humans transitioned from a mobile to a sedentary lifestyle and involved a shift from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
• In Ethiopia, people cultivated plants like Teff, dagussa, nug, and enset.
• The domestication of the enset plant reduced shifting cultivation, which slowed soil exhaustion.

The Peopling of the Region

• Ethiopia and the Horn is characterized by ethnic and linguistic diversity.
• Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major super families: Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.

Language Classification

• Cushitic languages are a division of Afro-Asiatic, further divided into Northern, Central and Eastern.
• Northern Cushitic is represented by Beja.
• Central Cushitic includes Agaw (Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen).
• Eastern Cushitic includes Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, and Sidama.
• Semitic languages are divided into North and South.
• North Semitic includes Ge'ez, Rashaida, Tigre, and Tigrigna.
• South Semitic languages are divided into Transverse and Outer.
• Transverse South Semitic includes Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane, and Zay languages.
• Outer South Semitic includes Gafat (extinct), Gurage, and Mesmes (endangered) languages.
• Omotic includes Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Basketo, Bench, Boro (Shinasha), Chara, Dawro, Dime, Dizi, Doko, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer-Banna, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, and Korete languages.
• Nilo-Saharan languages include Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nuer, Nyangatom, Opuo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.

Settlement Patterns

• The distribution of peoples across the landscape in northeast Africa is the result of long historical processes.
• Settlement density varies from dense to sparse across the region.
• Except for the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of the population... (The statement is incomplete)
• The domestication of plants and animals led to two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.
• A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods.
• Afar, Saho, Somali, Karayu, and Borana Oromo are pastoralist groups.
• The major economic activity for the Omotic people is mixed farming and trade in northern Omo.

Religion and Religious Processes

• Indigenous religions have been followed by local people since ancient times with a variety of religious beliefs and practices.
• Oromo practice Waqeffanna, Hadiya practice Waa, Kambata practice Magnancho, Gedeo practice Mageno, Konso practice Waaq/Wakh, and Gojjam Agaw practice Diban.
• Judaism is considered the covenant between Yahweh/Jehovah and the ancient Hebrew community.
• Bete-Israel are remnants of old testament followers of orthodox Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from abroad
• Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot, an Israelite religion differing from Rabbinic Judaism.
• Christianity became the state religion in 334 A.D. during King Ezana's reign (320-360).
• Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) was the first Bishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).
• Consecration of bishops from the Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
• Christianity spread further during Ella Amida II's reign (478-86) by the Nine Saints.
• When Prophet Mohammed preached Islam in Mecca from 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
• The first group of Muslim refugees, led by Jafar Abu Talib, arrived in Ethiopia during the rule of Aksumite ruler Armah Ella Seham, who granted them asylum from 615-28.
• Islam spread peacefully to the Horn of Africa through trade, especially via Zeila..