Ethics Theories and Concepts

• Supernaturalism posits that the concept of good and bad originates from God.
• For an emotivist, moral language does not state factual claims.
• Ethical dilemmas occur when norms and values conflict.
• Emotivism is an ethical theory where ethical and value judgments are expressions of feeling, attitude, and prescriptions of action.
• A cultural relativist does not claim there is a standard notion of what is right and wrong.
• Logic is the science of reasoning, studying proper methods of thinking.
• Individuals may be ethical due to religious concerns, emotional attachment, or enlightened self-interest.
• Conscience refers to an individual's own principles regarding right and wrong.
• In Kohlberg's post-conventional level, one may disobey laws inconsistent with their principles.
• Relativism is the belief that nothing is objectively right or wrong.
• In Kohlberg's theory, an individual who follows rules to avoid punishment is in Stage 1.
• Supernaturalism doesn't see ethics as subjective.
• Vice is not associated with ethics.
• In determining right or wrong, feelings must be guided by reason.
• Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy dealing with the ultimate nature of things.
• Virtue ethics focuses mainly on developing good character and virtues.
• The ultimate goal of life according to Aristotle is Eudaimonia.

Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

• The Golden Mean is a key concept.
• "Eudaimonia" means living a fulfilling and virtuous life.
• The Golden Mean is the balance between excess and deficiency.
• Being generous without being wasteful exemplifies the Golden Mean.
• Wealth is not a moral virtue according to Aristotle.
• "Phronesis" (practical wisdom) involves using reason to apply virtues in real-life situations.
• Aristotle is most associated with virtue ethics.
• Virtue ethics emphasizes the character of the person making the decision.
• Virtues are developed by practicing virtuous behaviors regularly.
• Confucian ethics emphasizes rituals and social harmony (Li).
• One criticism is it lacks clear rules for right and wrong.
• Philippa Foot helped revive virtue ethics in the 20th century.
• Aristotle believes moral and intellectual virtues are both necessary for a fully virtuous life.

Utilitarianism

• Main principle is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
• Jeremy Bentham is considered the founder.
• Bentham focused on quantity while Mill introduced higher and lower pleasures.
• The two types are act and rule utilitarianism.
• According to Mill, it is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.
• Hedonistic Calculus is used to measure pleasure and pain.
• Rule Utilitarianism emphasizes following rules that generally maximize happiness.
• Predicting consequences is challenging due to the uncertain future.
• Impartiality treats everyone's happiness as equally important.
• It may justify sacrificing individual rights for the greater good.
• The Trolley Problem illustrates how utilitarianism supports saving the greatest number of people.

Deontological Ethics

• Main principle is following moral duties and obligations.
• Immanuel Kant believed a good will was the only thing good without qualification.
• Kant's term for a universal moral law is Categorical Imperative.
• A Hypothetical Imperative applies only in some situations.
• Never lying is an example of a perfect duty.
• The first formulation of the Categorical Imperative emphasizes acting in a way that could become a universal law.
• Kant believes lying is always wrong because it treats people as means, not ends.
• Helping those in need is an example of an imperfect duty.
• A criticism is it is too rigid and ignores consequences.
• Kant's ethics emphasizes duty, while utilitarianism focuses on happiness.
• The second formulation of the Categorical Imperative is to treat people as ends, not as means.
• People must act according to self-imposed moral laws.
• Some duties may contradict, making it difficult to decide what to do.
• Kant rejects consequences because intentions and duty determine morality, not results.
• Hypothetical Imperatives depend on personal desires, while Categorical Imperatives are universal.

Natural Law Theory

• Moral laws exist in nature and can be discovered through reason.
• John Locke argued that life, liberty, and property are natural rights.
• Morality is based on human nature and reason.
• The Declaration of Independence is influenced by natural law and natural rights.
• According to Aquinas, natural law is part of eternal law.
• Thomas Jefferson said human rights are inalienable and self-evident.
• Maximization of happiness is not a key principle of natural law.
• A major criticism is it assumes a fixed human nature, which evolution challenges.
• According to natural law, the purpose of government is to uphold justice and human rights.
• Aquinas believes the source of natural law is divine reason.
• John Locke argues about natural rights: They exist before governments and cannot be taken away.
• Jeremy Bentham criticized natural rights as "nonsense upon stilts."
• The main purpose is to provide universal moral protection for all humans
• Natural law is considered objective because it is rooted in human reason and nature.
• It is unclear on how to apply moral principles to real-world issues.