Ethics DS380: Foundations of Ethical Theories

• The following are study notes for Ethics Foundations (DS380)

Introduction to Ethics

• Ethics is the study of morality
• Morality is a system of rules guiding human conduct and principles for evaluating those rules
• A moral system aims to prevent harm and promote human flourishing
• A moral system should be public, informal, rational, and impartial
• Morality functions at micro-level (individual behavior) and macro-level (social policy)

Theories of Ethics

Divine Command Ethics

• The moral value of an action is determined by divine rules
• Morality is dictated by a superior power like God or karma
• Criticism to the theory, is about what happens if no divine law-giver exists

Consequentialist Ethics / Utilitarianism

• Morality is determined based on the outcome of an action
• Different evaluation methods exist for the theory to define morality
• The evaluation methods are, the happiness of those affected, and health and well-being
• Criticism of the theory is whether, morality can be reduced to just happiness, health, or well-being

Deontological Ethics

• Morality is based on duty rather than outcomes
• Immanuel Kant's Moral Imperative states that, one should act on maxims that can be universally applied
• Criticism of the theory revolves around what happens when duties conflict

Rights and Social Contract Ethics

• Morality is defined by upholding human rights and following social contracts
• Criticism of the theory is that, not all moral issues can be covered by contracts or rights

Virtue Ethics

• The theory focuses on character and virtue rather than rules or consequences
• The theory can align with other ethical theories
• Criticism of the theory is that, virtues differ by culture and context

Moral Relativism vs. Objectivity

• Moral relativism says that, morality is subjective and varies across cultures
• Cultural relativism observes differences but does not dictate moral judgment
• Ethical objectivity states that, ethics can be rational even if morality isn't absolute

Moral Foundations Theory (Jonathan Haidt)

• Human morality has six core domains
• Care/Harm (Compassion) means feeling empathy for others and wanting to prevent suffering
• An example of Care/Harm is helping a child who is lost or donating to disaster relief efforts
• It is typically emphasized in liberal moral views, human rights advocacy, and healthcare ethics
• Fairness/Cheating (Justice) means valuing justice, equality, and fair treatment
• An example of Fairness/Cheating is supporting equal pay for equal work or being outraged by corruption and cheating
• It is often highlighted in discussions of social justice, economic fairness, and democracy
• Liberty/Oppression (Freedom) means opposing domination and valuing personal and collective freedom
• An example of Liberty/Oppression is fighting against dictatorships, supporting free speech, or advocating for civil liberties
• Libertarians, revolutionaries, and civil rights activists prioritize this foundation
• Loyalty/Betrayal (Group Identity) means feeling strong connections to groups and valuing loyalty
• An example of Loyalty/Betrayal is patriotism, supporting sports team no matter what, or being upset by a friend's betrayal
• The importance of group identity, is often emphasized in conservative political ideologies, military culture, and collectivist societies
• Authority/Subversion (Respect for Hierarchy) means recognizing and respecting hierarchies and traditions
• An example of Authority/Subversion is following the chain of command in the military or respecting elders
• This element, is found in conservative politics, traditional societies, and religious institutions
• Sanctity/Degradation (Purity and Sacredness) means seeing some things as sacred and rejecting what is viewed as disgusting or degrading
• An example of Sanctity/Degradation is religious rituals, disgust at immoral behavior, or opposition to taboo acts like incest or cannibalism
• This element, is common in religious and traditionalist perspectives, as well as movements focused on moral purity
• Societies emphasize different foundations, like liberal vs conservative ethics

Just-Consequentialist Framework (Moor)

• The framework combines multiple ethical theories, except divine command
• The steps for policy evaluation include deliberating impartially over options
• A policy is ethical if it avoids unnecessary harm, and supports fulfilling duties and obligations
• The best policy is identified, by weighing benefits and harms, and ensuring factual accuracy
• Stakeholders should be consulted for ethical decision-making

Ethical Issues in AI and Autonomous Vehicles

• The priority that an autonomous car should have is defined as passenger safety vs pedestrian safety, and protecting property vs preventing harm
• The ethical theories guide those decisions
• The Utilitarian approach minimizes harm
• The Deontological approach follows universal moral rules
• Virtue ethics means, acting with wisdom and justice

Introduction to Fairness in Ethics

• Fairness is a key principle in ethical discussions, ensuring just treatment for all individuals
• The GAIA Policy emphasizes fairness in education and AI use, focusing on transparency, equity, and responsible AI usage
• The Key Questions to be asked around fairness, are around defining it, how to evaluate it, and whether or not it should account for personal differences

The Importance of Fairness

• Fairness supports social stability (John Rawls)
• Perceived unfairness can lead to societal unrest or revolution
• Fairness upholds individual dignity by preventing discrimination
• Cultural differences impact the perception of fairness
• In some societies, pay gaps based on gender might be considered fair due to cultural norms

Equality vs. Equity

• Equality means treating everyone the same, regardless of differences
• Equity means adjusting conditions so that everyone has an equal opportunity
• Both get the same-sized box to stand on, this is equality
• An example of equity is the short person gets a taller box so both can see equally

Fairness in Social Policy (Distributive Justice)

• Distributive justice is the fair distribution of goods and opportunities based on what is being distributed, who receives it, and the basis for distribution
• Questionable examples of this justice, are whether the government should provide universal healthcare, whether CEOs receive extremely high salaries, and whether women receive equal pay for equal work

Distribution of Goods and Harms

• Environmental, Economic, Personal, and Social are Types of Goods
• Distributional harms and Representational harms are Types of Harms
• Privilege affects fairness

Algorithmic Fairness

• Algorithmic bias has affects fairness
• Amazon had an AI system, that was discriminating against women because it was trained on biased data
• Unintended bias can exist in algorithms even if trained on neutral data
• AI trained to detect sexual orientation from photos showed biased accuracy across groups

The Limits of Blinding Data to Improve Fairness

• "Fairness through unawareness” doesn't work
• AI can infer race, gender, or socioeconomic status from data like ZIP codes, or shopping habits
• Some medical treatments may need race or gender data for accurate prescriptions
• Recidivism risk algorithms may need gender information, as men and women have different reoffending patterns

Group Fairness & Systemic Bias

• Demographic Parity means, that everyone gets equal treatment
• Error-Rate Parity means, that different groups face equal misclassification rates
• Calibration means, that algorithm accuracy is equal across groups
• AP classes being easier to access in wealthy schools, means, that using “number of AP classes" as a success metric is unfair
• Sound compression in technology often favors men's voices over women's

Fairness and the Digital Divide

• Unequal access to information and technology creates fairness concerns
• Developing nations have less internet access
• Economic class, race, and gender affect access to jobs, education, and information

The Role of Cyber Technology in Fairness

• Technology enhances free speech and informs voters
• Algorithmic personalization creates echo chambers like, biased news feeds
• Technology can undermine democracy by spreading misinformation.
• Job displacement has occured due to AI and automation
• There is increased workplace surveillance using employee tracking, and data collection that impacts privacy, job security, and well-being.

Ethics and Social Goods

• A responsible computing and data scientist should be using data and algorithms for social good, protecting privacy, dignity, and agency of users, recognizing the long-term impact of technology, and seeking expert help when necessary
• Key Questions with the above items, include defining the characteristics that qualify the item, what's public good vs public harm?, how can we evaluate social good and public good?, and who decides what qualifies as which

Understanding Goods and Harms

• Environmental, Economic, Personal, and Social are different types of goods
• Distributional harms and Representational harms are different Types of Harms
• Those with privilege access goods more easily and avoid harms more effectively

Definitions of Key Terms

• Public Goods is defined as commodities or services that benefit all members of a society
• Public goods are non-excludable being that everyone can access it, and non-rivalrous being that one person's use doesn't reduce another's
• Pure public goods are always non-excludable, like clean air, and national defense
• Impure public goods are sometimes non-excludable, like open-source software
• Private Good, Club Good, and Common-Pool Good are the other types of goods
• Private goods are excludable and rivalrous, like food, and personal computers
• Club goods are excludable but non-rivalrous, like satellite TV, and toll roads
• Common-pool goods are non-excludable but rivalrous, like fisheries, and natural resources

Social Goods vs. Public Goods

• Social goods are a subset of public goods related to societal well-being, like education, and public safety
• Public health affects everyone and some political movements argue that healthcare should be a universal right
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs), have governments providing funding, and private companies providing expertise
• The development of the internet, and COVID vaccines, are examples of public-private partnerships

The Ethics of Generating Public Goods

• The Public Good Game illustration, has several rules
• Everyone starts with $100, then contributes to a shared public good for $3,000
• Afterwards, if the goal is met, each person gets $200, but if the goal is not met, money is lost
• In the outcomes, some free-ride (gain benefits without contributing), some cooperate fully (ensure public good is created), some cooperate equitably (contribute based on ability), and some appoint leaders to manage contributions
• Lessons can be learned from this game
• Free-riding prevents public goods from being created
• Punishment for free riders, cultural indoctrination, religious/moral beliefs, and solutions to free-riding
• Free markets often fail to provide public goods, governments may fail due to political disagreement, and economic systems need virtuous behavior but cannot create it, are all Challenges with creating Public Goods Production

Cyber-Technology and Public Goods

• Cyber-Tech as a public good, is often difficult to create due to high cost and profit incentives, which explains why Companies have no intrinsic reason to make tech non-excludable
• Governments having the motivation but lack expertise, and corporations having the expertise but prioritize profit explains why we need Public-Private Partnerships for Cyber-Tech

The Challenge of Transforming Cyber-Tech into Public Goods

• A few key questions must be asked
• Are cyber technologies more often public goods or public harms?
• How can corporations, governments, and NGOs transform technology into public goods?
• Should cyber-tech public goods be regulated, and if so, by whom?
• Internet & search engines, Social networking services, Virtual environments, and AI algorithms, are all Examples of Cyber-Tech Public Goods

Reasoning and Cognitive Errors

• Ethical judgments are made by human minds shaped by evolution and cognitive psychology
• Evolutionary Biology, Cognitive Psychology, and Cognitive Limitations are Key Influences on Ethical Reasoning
• Our brains evolved for survival, not perfect rationality, according to Evolutionary Biology
• Cognitive Psychology reveals how we process thoughts, emotions, and decisions
• Many cognitive features that were once adaptive can now be maladaptive in modern contexts with Cognitive Limitations

Cognitive Bias: Definition and Importance

• Bounded Rationality refers to human's limited cognitive resources, to process complex problems
• Cognitive Bias is systematical thinking errors that affect judgments and decisions
• Heuristics (mental shortcuts) to deal with limited data and Neuro-evolutionary constraints (our brains prioritize survival-based reasoning) are origins of bias
• Cognitive biases distort logical reasoning, probability evaluation, and judgment
• Biases arise because our brains were designed for fast, survival-based decisions rather than complex logical analysis

Types of Cognitive Biases

• Cognitive biases occur due to four main reasons
• Sunk Cost Fallacy, Choice-Supportive Bias, and Information Overload, are all Biases from Too Much Information
• Confirmation Bias means seeking information that confirms existing beliefs
• Continuing investment in failing projects because of past investment, is the sunk cost fallacy
• Choice-Supportive Bias, is about remembering past decisions as better than they were
• Too much information leads to decision paralysis, referred to as Information Overload
• Framing Effect, Ambiguity Effect, Negativity Bias, and Hindsight Bias, are all Biases from Too Little Information
• Decisions being influenced by how information is presented, is the framing effect
• Preference for known risks over unknown risks is the Ambiguity Effect
• Negativity Bias means, giving more weight to negative experiences
• Believing past events were more predictable than they really were, means someone suffers from Hindsight Bias
• Availability Heuristic, Bandwagon Effect, Base-Rate Fallacy, and Halo Effect, are all Biases from Acting Too Quickly
• Availability Heuristic means, relying on readily available information instead of thorough research
• Bandwagon Effect is following popular opinion rather than forming an independent judgemnt
• Base-Rate Fallacy is ignoring statistical probabilities in favor of personal examples
• Halo Effect is judging someone's trustworthiness based on their general reputation
• False Memory, Conservatism Bias, Serial-Position Effect, and Self-Serving Bias are Biases from Memory Limitations
• False Memory is recalling events that never happened
• Conservatism Bias is clinging to old beliefs despite new evidence
• Serial-Position Effect means, remembering the first and last items in a list better than the middle
• Self-Serving Bias is attributing success to oneself but blaming failures on external factors

Evolutionary Ethics and Moral Reasoning

• Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) (Jonathan Haidt) says, that human morality is influenced by six core moral domains
• They are Care/Harm (Compassion), Fairness/Cheating (Justice), Liberty/Oppression (Freedom), Loyalty/Betrayal (Group identity), Authority/Subversion (Respect for hierarchy), and Sanctity/Degradation (Purity and sacredness)
• Different cultures emphasize different moral foundations with liberals stressing fairness and care, and conservatives stress authority and loyalty

Cognitive Bias in Cyber-Ethics

• Cognitive biases influence decision-making in cyber-ethics debates
• Examples of those are "Unregulated free markets solve all ethical problems”, "Al will always be controlled by humans", and "A command economy is needed to regulate Al safely”
• Bias in machine learning algorithms, Algorithmic fairness vs. bias trade-offs, and Ethical issues in Al decision-making and automation, constitute Cyber-Bias Challenges

Overcoming Cognitive Bias: Is it a Virtue?

• The need to control cognitive bias, is a question
• Whether or not it can be eliminated, can be argued
• Whether or not recognizing bias is a moral obligation is still open to discussion
• The way education can potentially help people recognize and correct bias is still unclear
• The way Potential economic and social effects of mastering cognitive bias takes place is yet to be quantified

Logical Reasoning: Validity and Soundness

• Valid Argument is where the Conclusion follows logically from premises
• Sound Argument is where, Conclusion follows logically from premises, and all premises are true
• Invalid Argument is where, Conclusion does not logically follow from premises

Ethical Reasoning and Syllogisms

• Ethical Syllogism for Individuals has the Major Premise where a good driver removes roadkill, the Minor Premise where someone wants to be a good driver, and the Conclusion, meaning that some one should remove the dead animal from the road
• Ethical Syllogism for Groups has the Major Premise where the tech industry should serve society, the Minor Premise being that, society needs ethical Al, and the Conclusion where, the industry, should prioritize ethical Al over profit

Logical Fallacies in Ethical Reasoning

• Logical fallacies undermine reasoning and are common in ethical debates
• Ad Hominem is when, someone attacks a person instead of their argument
• Appeal to Ignorance means, assuming something is true because it hasn't been proven false
• Slippery Slope means, arguing that one event will inevitably lead to disaster
• Strawman Fallacy means, misrepresenting an argument to easily refute it
• Post Hoc Fallacy means, assuming that because one event followed another, it was caused by it.