Ethical Frameworks: Utilitarianism

• Moral frameworks are structured sets of principles designed to help individuals determine right from wrong
• These frameworks provide guidance for resolving moral dilemmas and making ethical decisions
• Different frameworks exist, each with its own set of underlying assumptions and values

Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism states that the best action is the one that maximizes overall well-being or "utility"
• This framework focuses on the consequences of actions, aiming to produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people
• A key principle is impartiality, meaning everyone's happiness counts equally
• Act utilitarianism applies the principle directly to each individual action, assessing its consequences
• Rule utilitarianism establishes general rules that, if followed, tend to maximize overall happiness
• Challenges include the difficulty of predicting all consequences and potential conflicts with individual rights
• Some actions which may be deemed to increase utility may be seen as unjust by others

Deontology

• Deontology emphasizes moral duties and rules, irrespective of consequences
• Actions are judged based on whether they adhere to these duties, not on their outcomes
• Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative is a central concept, stating that one should act only according to principles that could be universal laws
• Treating individuals as ends in themselves, rather than merely as means to an end, is crucial
• Different deontological theories may prioritize different duties, leading to potential conflicts
• Critics argue that strict adherence to rules can lead to morally problematic outcomes in certain situations

Virtue Ethics

• Virtue ethics emphasizes the development of virtuous character traits
• Focus is on being a good person, rather than just following rules or maximizing utility
• Virtues are character traits that are considered morally good, such as honesty, courage, compassion, and justice
• A virtuous person acts in accordance with these virtues in various situations
• Aristotle's concept of the "golden mean" suggests that virtues lie between two extremes (excess and deficiency)
• Critics argue that virtue ethics can be vague and may not provide clear guidance in specific moral dilemmas
• Application can be culturally dependent as different cultures value different virtues

Rights-Based Ethics

• Rights-based ethics asserts that individuals have certain inherent rights that should be respected
• These rights can be legal or moral, and they can be positive (entitling someone to something) or negative (protecting someone from interference)
• Examples of rights include the right to life, liberty, and property
• Rights-based approaches often involve balancing competing rights claims
• A challenge is determining the scope and limits of particular rights and how to resolve conflicts between them

Care Ethics

• Care ethics emphasizes relationships, empathy, and the needs of others
• It prioritizes caring for those who are vulnerable or dependent
• This framework is often contrasted with more abstract and impartial approaches
• Responsibilities arise from our relationships and interdependencies
• Critics suggest it can be limited in scope and may not adequately address issues of justice or broader social concerns
• There may be a challenge in determining when care becomes enabling

Ethical Egoism

• Ethical egoism holds that individuals should act in their own self-interest
• It does not necessarily mean doing whatever one pleases, but rather pursuing long-term well-being
• This framework is often contrasted with altruism, which emphasizes selfless concern for others
• Psychological egoism, a descriptive theory, claims that people are always motivated by self-interest
• Ethical egoism is a normative theory about how people should act
• Critics argue that it can lead to selfishness and disregard for the needs of others
• Some find it difficult to reconcile with common-sense moral intuitions about helping others

Divine Command Theory

• Divine command theory asserts that morality is based on the commands of a divine being
• What is right is what God commands, and what is wrong is what God forbids
• Moral obligations are derived from religious beliefs
• Interpretations of divine commands can vary among individuals and religious traditions
• A challenge is the question of whether God's commands are arbitrary or based on independent reasons
• The Euthyphro dilemma asks whether something is good because God commands it, or whether God commands it because it is good
• This framework may not be accessible or persuasive to those who do not share the same religious beliefs

Natural Law Theory

• Natural law theory posits that morality is grounded in human nature and the natural order of the world
• Moral principles can be discovered through reason and reflection on human nature
• Actions that are in accordance with human nature are considered morally good, while those that are contrary to it are considered morally wrong
• Natural law theory often emphasizes the importance of fulfilling one's purpose or telos
• Interpretations of human nature and the natural order can vary
• Critics question whether morality can be objectively derived from nature
• This theory is often associated with religious traditions that see God as the creator of nature

Ethical Relativism

• Ethical relativism holds that moral truths are relative to individual cultures or societies
• There are no universal moral principles that apply to all people at all times
• What is considered right or wrong varies depending on cultural norms and values
• Descriptive relativism simply observes that moral beliefs differ across cultures
• Normative relativism claims that it is wrong to impose one's own moral standards on other cultures
• Critics argue that it can lead to moral paralysis and the inability to condemn harmful practices
• It raises questions about whether any moral judgment across cultures is possible

Moral Intuitionism

• Moral intuitionism suggests that we have direct, intuitive knowledge of moral truths
• Moral judgments are based on immediate feelings or insights, rather than reasoning or reflection
• Moral intuitions can be influenced by emotions, experiences, and cultural norms
• Different individuals may have conflicting moral intuitions
• Critics question the reliability and objectivity of moral intuitions
• It can be difficult to justify moral claims based solely on intuition