Ch14 and 15: Ethics of Media and Media and Government

Media Representation and Diversity in the United States

• Major professional journalism organizations in the US have aimed for greater ethnic diversity since the late 1970s, with ASNE setting 2025 as the target date for minority representation in newsrooms to match US demographics.
• Niche media sources such as BET, Univision, Telemundo, Essence, and Jet are preferred by 45% of ethnic-minority adults, as they cover stories about racial minorities and offer ethnic-minority perspectives on widely covered issues.
• Entertainment channels like BET provide diverse programming that mainstream TV networks often lack.
• Print sources like Vista and Vivid appeal to ethnic minority groups because they are controlled and created by individuals within these groups.
• Despite criticism, ethnic niche media's popularity has grown in recent years and is likely to continue in the absence of more diverse perspectives in mainstream media sources.
• Stereotyped gender roles continue to thrive in the mass media, with women often represented as subordinate, emotional, and noncompetitive, while men are characterized by dominance, aggression, and physical strength.
• In the mainstream news media, men are predominantly featured as authorities, while women are more likely to report on stories that do not require expertise.
• The media often embodies the male gaze, with shows that don't focus on men featuring women that guys might watch.
• Few female role models exist in the media who are valued primarily for qualities like intelligence or leadership.
• Images in the media conform to unrealistic beauty standards, leading women to believe that their value depends on physical attractiveness.
• The prevalence of gender stereotypes in the media is accompanied by a disproportionate ratio of men to women in the mass media, both in front of and behind the scenes.
• Women slightly outnumber men in the general population, yet over two-thirds of TV sitcoms feature men in the starring role, and the number of women in behind-the-scenes creative roles lags far behind.

Impact of Sexual Content in American Mass Media

• In the 1920s and 1930s, films featured scandalous content such as erotic dances, nudity, and sexual violence before the Hays Code was established in 1934.
• The Hays Code imposed restrictions on "indecent" content in movies, leading to the withdrawal of films like Trouble in Paradise and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
• The Hays Code was replaced by the MPAA rating system in the 1960s, allowing more permissive attitudes towards sexuality in American culture.
• Critics argue that American mass media often portrays sex unrealistically, with frequent and casual depictions that overlook potential consequences.
• Portrayals of sex in media rarely include possible risks like sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy, occurring in only 15% of sexually explicit material on TV.
• The media often depicts actors and models in sexual relationships as thinner, younger, and more attractive than the average adult, creating unrealistic expectations.
• Media activists and psychologists express concern about the negative effects of unrealistic portrayals, particularly on women's bodies and the objectification of women.
• Research indicates that the recent increase in entertainment featuring sexual violence may negatively affect the behavior of young men towards women.
• Adolescents often turn to the media for information and opinions about sex, with high exposure to sex on television being linked to a higher likelihood of initiating sexual activity.
• Cultural critics note that sexually explicit themes in mass media are more widely accepted in European nations than in the United States.
• Unrealistic portrayals of sexual content seem to be a primary concern, with critics arguing that American media trivializes sex rather than promoting it.
• Despite criticisms, it is likely that unrealistic portrayals of sexual content will continue in mass media unless the general public stops consuming these images.

The Evolution of News Media in the Digital Age

• In 1963, television coverage of President John F. Kennedy's assassination marked the beginning of round-the-clock news coverage.
• The internet has replaced TV and radio as the main source of immediate information, with news available instantly through various online platforms.
• The internet's development has forever changed the structure of news media, forcing traditional outlets to adapt and diversify to compete.
• News consumers increasingly want news on demand, from a variety of sources, leading to a significant effect on media revenues.
• News aggregators like Yahoo News and Google News have become popular sources of information, drawing traffic comparable to legacy news organizations' websites.
• The shift to online sources has led to a decline in print advertising and subscriptions, impacting the financial stability of traditional news organizations.
• Reduced budgets and the pressure for immediacy have changed the way information is reported and disseminated, with more focus on distributing information than gathering it.
• The restructuring of newsrooms has led to excessive coverage of certain stories and neglected in-depth reporting on others.
• Industry professionals are anxious about the future of the news industry, as news sites are reluctant to invest extensively in original, in-depth journalism due to uncertain revenue streams and consumer demand for real-time updates.
• Speed is prioritized in news reporting, with news of events spreading rapidly through online platforms, as seen with the coverage of Michael Jackson's death in 2009.
• The Center for Excellence in Journalism has labeled the news industry as "more reactive than proactive," indicating a shift in reporting practices.
• Journalist Patricia Sullivan criticizes the lack of investment in original, in-depth, and scrupulously edited news reporting by online news sites.

Ethical Journalism and the Challenges of Bias and Privacy

• The Huffington Post requires writers to fact-check and correct errors within 24 hours or lose their privileges
• Journalistic codes of ethics emphasize truth-telling and loyalty to citizens
• Financial pressure creates tension between responsible journalism and profit demands
• Corporate and political influences are a growing concern in the media environment
• Responsible journalists balance news disclosure with respect for individual privacy
• The International Federation of Journalists offers three factors as a guideline in privacy cases
• Journalists must act independently and remain neutral in their presentation of information
• Reporting occurs through the lens of personal experience, culture, beliefs, and background
• Journalists should avoid conflicts of interest and disclose unavoidable conflicts
• Government bailouts for the news media are a concern due to potential conflict of interest
• The news media should allow for commentary and opposition to serve the public interest
• A 2005 study found that most media outlets had a perspective left of the national average, with only Fox News and The Washington Times to the right

Online Privacy and Constitutional Rights

• Rapid development of online media has led to unresolved legal battles over constitutional rights in relation to online data privacy
• In a 2010 case, Yahoo fought against government officials who wanted to access a user's email without a search warrant, challenging the application of the Fourth Amendment in the case of an e-mail account
• Websites argue that users agree to make their personal information available by using their services, but many users are unaware of the extent of surveillance capabilities and struggle to protect their personal information
• Personal data is increasingly stored online as people engage in various online activities such as shopping, communication, and browsing
• Cookies, like those from Google, are used to track users' search histories, buying habits, and browsing patterns, raising concerns about predatory advertising
• Search engines receive numerous requests per day for specific information on their users, leading to concerns about unfair profiling
• Data collection often occurs without users' knowledge or informed consent, as dense legalistic language in agreements makes it difficult for users to understand the extent of data collection
• Online and offline data are combined to create detailed digital profiles for targeted advertising, raising concerns about privacy and transparency
• Online social networks provide creditors and banks with information for credit and loan decisions, and users' privacy settings can impact the accessibility of their private information
• The USA PATRIOT Act, passed after 9/11, expanded the government's rights to access citizens' personal information, including email communications and web searches
• Civil liberties organizations are concerned that the Patriot Act could be used as a back door for undisclosed surveillance not necessarily related to terrorism
• The Act allows wiretapping of Internet communications even if the primary purpose is a criminal investigation, as long as intelligence gathering is a significant purpose of the investigation

The Influence of Media on Politics

• Media's influence on government and politicians has been a topic of debate among political scientists, journalists, politicians, and pundits.
• Despite laws like Section 315 to prevent unbalanced political coverage, a large majority of the public still perceives media's influence on government as excessive.
• In a January 2010 survey, two-thirds of respondents believed that the media has too much influence on the government.
• 72 percent of respondents agreed that "most reporters try to help the candidate they want to win."
• Radio, television, and the Internet have played crucial roles in politics over the years.
• Radio popularized breaking news and became a platform for political and cultural debates during the 1920s.
• Television has been Americans' primary source of political news since its early days.
• Political candidates began using TV commercials as early as 1952, understanding the medium’s power.
• The 1960 Nixon-Kennedy debates marked television's entry into politics and emphasized the importance of candidates' appearance.
• The visual difference in the 1960 Nixon-Kennedy debates had a significant impact on public perception and the election outcome.
• The Vietnam War was the first "living-room war," with television broadcasting the horrors of battle into American homes on a large scale for the first time.
• Early in the war, television coverage of the Vietnam War was mostly upbeat, emphasizing the bravery and skills of American soldiers.