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Questions and Answers

Processes that _______ energy convert ADP + P to ATP.

require

(NADH) Reduced Electron Carriers ________ electrons.

have

(NAD+) Oxidized Electron Carriers ________ electrons.

are ready to accept

What do cell molecules determine?

The properties and functions of cells. Signup and view all the answers

What do cells determine?

The properties and functions of organisms, energy transformation, cell division, and patterns of inheritance. Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of science?

Observations, hypothesis, data collection. Signup and view all the answers

What does capillary adhesion refer to?

A very thin layer of water acts as 'glue' between two surfaces. Signup and view all the answers

What is quantitative data?

Data obtained by direct observation. Signup and view all the answers

What is qualitative data?

Data obtained by indirect observation. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes one atom from another?

The charge on the atom. Signup and view all the answers

How do atoms share electrons?

From covalent bonds. Signup and view all the answers

What are covalent bonds?

Connect atoms to form molecules. Signup and view all the answers

What is a molecule?

Two or more atoms connected by covalent bonds. Signup and view all the answers

What is electronegativity?

A measure of attraction for shared electrons. Signup and view all the answers

The more electronegative an atom is, the more strongly it pulls ___ toward itself.

electrons Signup and view all the answers

What are non-polar covalent bonds?

Unequal sharing of electrons. Signup and view all the answers

What are polar covalent bonds?

Equal sharing of electrons; distinct poles (sides). Signup and view all the answers

Is it possible for a polar molecule NOT to have any polar bonds?

False Signup and view all the answers

What are non-covalent bonds?

Attractions between atoms with opposite charges. Signup and view all the answers

Covalent bonds are _____ than non-covalent bonds.

stronger Signup and view all the answers

Ionic bonds are bonds formed between atoms with ___ charges.

full Signup and view all the answers

What are hydrogen bonds?

Bonds between atoms with opposite partial charges, involving a partially positive hydrogen atom. Signup and view all the answers

What are the 3 types of non-covalent bonds?

Ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces. Signup and view all the answers

Van der Waals interactions occur between atoms with:

very temporary partial charges. Signup and view all the answers

To determine whether a covalent bond between two atoms is polar or non-polar, what do you need to know?

Whether one atom has a stronger attraction for electrons than the other. Signup and view all the answers

What are important properties of water?

Very cohesive; many interactions hold water together; can form hydrogen bonds with four other water molecules. Signup and view all the answers

What does hydrophobic mean?

Water fearing. Signup and view all the answers

What does hydrophilic mean?

Attracted to water. Signup and view all the answers

What kinds of bonds can occur in between oil?

Van der Waals forces. Signup and view all the answers

What is genetic information?

Nucleic acids. Signup and view all the answers

What is energy storage?

Carbs. Signup and view all the answers

What are membranes composed of?

Lipids. Signup and view all the answers

What are cellular 'machines'?

Proteins. Signup and view all the answers

What are nucleic acids?

Instructions required to create and maintain cells. Signup and view all the answers

What are nucleotides?

Smaller molecules used to form DNA and RNA. Signup and view all the answers

What are DNA and RNA?

Chains of nucleotides connected by covalent bonds. Signup and view all the answers

What is DNA?

Information storage. Signup and view all the answers

What is RNA?

Messages and more. Signup and view all the answers

In an HCl molecule, the H side would have a _____ charge.

slight positive Signup and view all the answers

How are ionic bonds formed?

One atom gives up an electron to a second atom. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following bonds are arranged from strongest to weakest in a biological system?

Covalent, ionic, hydrogen Signup and view all the answers

What do you need to know to evaluate the results of a study showing a 10% reduction in pain?

Whether 10% is a statistically significant difference Signup and view all the answers

Is the statement "Consuming garlic has no effect on blood pressure" a valid scientific hypothesis?

Yes, because an experiment can be designed. Signup and view all the answers

In cellular respiration, what is the main role of glycolysis, formation of acetyl-CoA, and the citric acid cycle?

To remove electrons from carbons in fuel molecules Signup and view all the answers

In what step of cellular respiration is most energy captured as ATP?

Oxidative phosphorylation Signup and view all the answers

If a drug allows protons to pass through the inner membrane of mitochondria, which process would be affected?

ATP synthesis by ATP synthase Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis explains why athletes have more mitochondria?

They can break down glucose faster due to more respiration machinery. Signup and view all the answers

What are the purposes of lactic acid fermentation in red blood cells? (Select all that apply)

To regenerate NAD+ Signup and view all the answers

Why do cells carry out cellular respiration when oxygen is available?

Cellular respiration produces more ATP per glucose than fermentation. Signup and view all the answers

What happens if chlorophyll molecules can only absorb wavelengths between 400nm and 500nm?

The rate of both will decrease. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it beneficial for chloroplasts to contain multiple types of pigment molecules?

It increases the range of wavelengths for light energy. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the roles of light reactions, the Calvin cycle, and cellular respiration?

Light reactions convert light energy; the Calvin cycle uses energy for CO2 conversion; cellular respiration breaks down sugars. Signup and view all the answers

Did Engelmann's experiment directly measure the rate of the light reactions, the Calvin cycle, or both?

The light reactions only Signup and view all the answers

Could two molecules have the same sets of atoms but have different properties?

Yes, with different arrangements. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the three types of subatomic particles.

Protons, electrons, neutrons. The electron cloud is negatively charged while the nucleus has a positive charge. Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean if two atoms are connected by a covalent bond?

It means the atoms are sharing one or more pairs of electrons. Signup and view all the answers

Compare and contrast polar and nonpolar bonds.

Nonpolar bonds share electrons equally due to similar electronegativity, while polar bonds involve unequal sharing. Signup and view all the answers

What information do you need to determine whether a bond is nonpolar or polar?

Electron distribution, electronegativity. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the key difference between covalent and noncovalent bonds.

Covalent bonds share electrons while noncovalent bonds connect molecules. Signup and view all the answers

Compare the three types of noncovalent interactions.

Ionic, hydrogen, and Van der Waals interactions. Strongest is ionic, weakest is van der Waals. Signup and view all the answers

What feature do all noncovalent interactions share?

They have opposite charges between atoms. Signup and view all the answers

Why is understanding the properties of water important for cells?

Water is the solvent of life due to its polarity and solubility. Signup and view all the answers

Come up with your own analogy to describe the four common cellular features.

... Signup and view all the answers

Describe the main role of each of the four types of biomolecules.

Carbs for energy, lipids for storage, proteins for various functions, nucleic acids for genetic information. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the physical properties of phospholipids.

Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, allowing for bilayer formation. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference between saturated and unsaturated lipid carbon-hydrogen tails.

Saturated tails have no double bonds; unsaturated have double bonds causing kinks. Signup and view all the answers

How could a cell alter its phospholipid tails to prevent freezing?

It could hydrogenate micelle tails to remove double bonds, making them more solid. Signup and view all the answers

Explain why coconut oil is solid at room temperature and corn oil is not.

Corn oil's double bonds make it unsaturated, while coconut oil has fewer bonds making it saturated. Signup and view all the answers

How does the formation of trans-fats affect melting temperature?

It increases melting temperature. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the relationship between amino acids, polypeptides, and proteins.

Proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds; a chain of amino acids is a polypeptide. Signup and view all the answers

What gives each amino acid its unique properties?

The R group of the amino acid determines its properties. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the two main forms of energy in cells.

Chemical energy in the bonds and entropy as disorder. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between low and high entropy?

Low entropy means molecules are close together; high entropy means they are spread out. Signup and view all the answers

Processes that ______ energy convert ATP to ADP + P.

release Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes polar bonds and polar molecules? (Select all that apply)

All polar molecules have at least one polar bond. Signup and view all the answers

What's the difference between hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions?

Hydrogen bonds involve interactions between atoms with permanent partial charges; van der Waals interactions involve associations between atoms that are only temporarily partially charged. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding bonds and interactions between atoms?

Electrons are shared in a covalent bond, and an ionic bond involves an atom that has gained an electron and an atom that has lost an electron. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following, if any, correctly describes the relationship between the terms atoms and molecules?

A molecule always has more than one atom. Signup and view all the answers

What type(s) of bond(s) is/are present in a mixture of water and olive oil? (Select all that apply)

Hydrogen bonds Signup and view all the answers

Mannose is a polar molecule. Based on this information, mannose:

Must have at least one polar bond. Signup and view all the answers

Formation of trans fats ______ the melting temperature of the triglycerides.

increases Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes a difference between covalent bonds and noncovalent interactions?

Covalent bonds can only occur between atoms in the same molecule, while noncovalent interactions can occur between atoms in the same or different molecules. Signup and view all the answers

Select all the phrases that describe the benefits of cellular organelles.

Organelles concentrate molecules required for a specific process in one place. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is/are true? (Select all that apply)

Organelles are important for organizing processes in eukaryotic cells, but are not present in prokaryotic cells. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following changes when a protein becomes denatured? (Select all that change)

Its ability to function Signup and view all the answers

Sorbose and tagatose are two monosaccharides that have the same number and type of atoms - six carbons, twelve hydrogens, and six oxygens. However, when tasted directly, sorbitose tastes slightly sweeter than tagatose. How is that possible?

The arrangement of atoms differs between the two monosaccharides. Signup and view all the answers

Based on what you learned, which property of water explains why water has a much higher melting temperature than other molecules its size?

Water molecules can form many more hydrogen bonds with each other compared to other molecules its size. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the relationships between ATP, processes that release energy, and processes that require energy in cells?

Processes that require energy convert ATP to ADP and phosphate. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following features of a reaction is/are changed when you add an enzyme that can catalyze the reaction? (Select all that apply)

The rate of the reaction Signup and view all the answers

For a reaction, if the free energy of the reactants is MORE than the free energy of the products, what, if anything must be true?

It releases energy. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following, if any, correctly describes a difference between the process of cellular respiration in prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells?

None of the above. Signup and view all the answers

In what way(s) is glycolysis similar in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?

All of the above describe glycolysis in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Signup and view all the answers

Greatly increasing the amount of an enzyme's substrate will _ the effectiveness of a competitive inhibitor and __ the effectiveness of a noncompetitive inhibitor.

Decrease; not affect Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding the formation of ATP from ADP and phosphate in cells is/are true? (Select all that are true)

The free energy of ATP is greater than the free energy of ADP and phosphate. Signup and view all the answers

Explain why an experiment CANNOT prove that a hypothesis is true.

An experiment can only provide evidence to support or refute a hypothesis, never prove it true. Signup and view all the answers

The hydrogen bonds in liquid water are less stable than in ice. Why?

There is less movement of molecules in colder conditions. Signup and view all the answers

Which four elements are the primary components of important biological molecules, such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates?

Nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Signup and view all the answers

An atom and an ion of the same element differ in the number of ____.

Electrons Signup and view all the answers

Covalent bonds can occur where atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. Which of the following would form a double covalent bond?

CO2 Signup and view all the answers

In hydrochloric acid (HCl), chlorine has greater electronegativity than hydrogen.

True Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules

Polar molecules have at least one polar bond, creating a partial positive and partial negative charge.
Molecules can have polar bonds and still be nonpolar if symmetrical (e.g., carbon dioxide).

Hydrogen Bonds vs. Van der Waals Interactions

Hydrogen bonds are formed between atoms with permanent partial charges; van der Waals interactions involve temporary partial charges.
Noncovalent interactions allow associations but do not form molecules, resulting in weaker bonds compared to covalent bonds.

Types of Bonds

Covalent bonds involve electron sharing; ionic bonds occur between an atom that gains an electron and one that loses an electron.
Noncovalent interactions, including hydrogen bonds, are always weaker than covalent bonds.

Atoms and Molecules

A molecule always consists of more than one atom.

Bonds in Water and Olive Oil Mixture

Water and olive oil contain covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals interactions; ionic bonds are absent.

Characteristics of Polar Molecules

Polar molecules must have at least one polar bond, but they may lack nonpolar bonds.

Hydrogenation and Trans Fats

Hydrogenation alters double bonds in triglycerides, increasing melting temperature due to straightened tails encouraging more molecular interactions.

Covalent Bonds vs. Noncovalent Interactions

Covalent bonds occur within the same molecule; noncovalent interactions can occur between different molecules.

Benefits of Cellular Organelles

Organelles compartmentalize functions, concentrate necessary molecules, and isolate potentially harmful substances.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells lack organelles; eukaryotic cells organize processes with them.
Prokaryotic cells contain one chromosome, whereas eukaryotic cells contain multiple chromosomes.

Effects of Protein Denaturation

Denaturation alters the protein's three-dimensional structure and functionality but does not change the number or sequence of amino acids.

Monosaccharide Differences

Different atomic arrangements in sorbose and tagatose cause variations in sweetness despite having the same number of atoms.

Properties of Water

Water's higher melting temperature results from its ability to form more hydrogen bonds compared to similar-size molecules.

ATP Formation and Energy Requirements

Processes requiring energy convert ATP to ADP and phosphate; processes releasing energy convert ADP and phosphate to ATP.

Enzymatic Reactions

Enzymes alter the rate of reactions and lower activation energy but do not change the total free energy of substrates or products.

Free Energy and Reaction Direction

If reactants have greater free energy than products, the reaction releases energy.

Glycolysis in Cell Types

Glycolysis occurs identically in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, taking place in the cytoplasm and breaking glucose into pyruvate.

Competitive vs. Noncompetitive Inhibition

High substrate levels reduce the impact of competitive inhibitors but do not affect noncompetitive inhibitors.

Free Energy and ATP

Formation of ATP from ADP and phosphate requires energy input, linking it to energy-releasing processes in cells.

Characteristics of Ice and Liquid Water

In liquid water, molecular movement increases, making hydrogen bonds less stable than in ice.

Essential Elements in Biological Molecules

Primary components of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates include nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Atoms vs. Ions

Ions differ from their atomic counterparts in electron count.

Covalent Bonds and Double Bonds

Carbon dioxide (CO2) forms a double covalent bond.

Ionic Bonds

Ionic bonds form through the transfer of electrons, such as in calcium chloride (CaCl2).

Strength of Biological Bonds

Bond strength in biological systems, ranked from strongest to weakest: covalent, ionic, hydrogen.

Evaluating Drug Study Results

To assess the efficacy of a new drug on pain reduction, additional contextual information is required beyond the presented data on average pain reduction.### Statistical Significance and Control Group
A 10% difference could be statistically significant, depending on the sample size and variability.
Control groups in studies often receive "placebo" (fake pill) to compare against the treatment group.
The number of participants in a study can affect the reliability of significance; larger samples tend to yield more accurate results.
Duration of treatment with drugs and placebos impacts outcome; longer treatments may reveal more significant effects.

Scientific Hypothesis Validity

A hypothesis stating "Consuming garlic has no effect on blood pressure" can be valid if it allows for experimental testing and analysis.

Cellular Respiration Overview

Key processes in cellular respiration: glycolysis, formation of acetyl-CoA, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle mainly remove electrons from glucose to create reduced electron carriers, such as NADH and FADH2.
Oxidative phosphorylation produces the majority of ATP from glucose breakdown, around 28 ATP per molecule.

Impact of Drug on Mitochondrial Function

If a drug allows protons to pass freely through mitochondrial membranes, ATP synthesis by ATP synthase would be significantly affected.

Mitochondrial Density in Muscle Cells

Athletes may have more mitochondria in muscle cells, enabling more efficient glucose breakdown and ATP production during exertion.

Lactic Acid Fermentation in Red Blood Cells

Lactic acid fermentation primarily serves to regenerate NAD+ and allow glycolysis to continue in anaerobic conditions.

Benefits of Cellular Respiration

Cells favor cellular respiration over fermentation due to the higher ATP yield from glucose when oxygen is present.

Pigment Diversity in Chloroplasts

Multiple pigment types enable chloroplasts to absorb a broader spectrum of light wavelengths, enhancing photosynthetic efficiency.

Light Reactions and Calvin Cycle

Light reactions convert light energy into chemical energy, while the Calvin cycle uses that energy to convert carbon dioxide into sugars.

Engelmann's Experiment Findings

Engelmann's findings on light wavelengths focused on measuring the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Properties of Water

Water's polarity makes it a universal solvent, crucial for biological functions; its unique properties support cell and organism function.

Structure of Biomolecules

Four main biomolecule types:
- Carbohydrates: energy sources, composed of saccharides (C, H, O).
- Lipids: energy storage, built from fatty acids and glycerol (C, H, O).
- Proteins: perform various roles; made of amino acids (C, H, O, N).
- Nucleic Acids: store genetic information, include DNA and RNA (C, H, O, N, P).

Phospholipid Bilayer Formation

Phospholipids have hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails and hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads, crucial for cell membrane structure.

Energy in Cells

Two main energy forms:
- Chemical energy from bonds between atoms.
- Entropy, representing disorder in a system.

Covalent Bonds and Non-Covalent Interactions

Covalent bonds involve sharing electrons between atoms, while non-covalent bonds are temporary attractions between charged particles.
Types of non-covalent interactions include ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals forces, with strengths varying from strongest (ionic) to weakest (van der Waals).

Atom and Molecule Properties

Atoms differ by proton count; negatively charged electrons form clouds around the positively charged nucleus.
Molecules form via covalent bonds between atoms, and polarities in bonds affect their properties. Non-polar bonds exist between identical atoms, while polar bonds involve differences in electronegativity.

Significance of Mutations in Biological Processes

Initial studies suggested mutations in chlorophyll affect light absorption, potentially limiting photosynthetic efficiency and overall plant growth.

Importance of Energy Transformations

Cells undergo energy transformations that both supply energy for biological processes and organize genetic inheritance patterns relevant for evolution.### Chemical Attraction
Determined by the strength of attraction an atom has for electrons in a bond.

Water Characteristics

Highly cohesive, meaning it tends to stick to itself.
Multiple interactions lead to strong bonding within water molecules.
Capable of forming hydrogen bonds with up to four other water molecules.

Properties of Molecules

Hydrophobic: Describes substances that repel water, not easily dissolvable in aqueous solutions.
Hydrophilic: Refers to substances that have an affinity for water, promoting solubility and interaction with water.

Molecular Interactions

In oils, interactions are primarily governed by van der Waals forces, which are weak attractions between molecules.

Biological Macromolecules

Genetic Information: Encoded by nucleic acids, which store and transfer genetic data.
Energy Storage: Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy storage in organisms.
Membranes: Constructed from lipids, forming essential barriers in biological systems.
Cellular Machines: Proteins act as the machinery of the cell, performing various functions necessary for life.

Nucleic Acids and Their Components

Nucleic acids provide essential instructions for cell creation and maintenance.
Nucleotides: Basic units that form DNA and RNA, some also function as energy carriers in cellular activities.
DNA and RNA: Composed of chains of nucleotides linked by covalent bonds, crucial for genetic encoding and expression.

Functions of Nucleic Acids

DNA: Primarily serves as information storage, containing the genetic blueprint of an organism.
RNA: Functions in the translation of genetic information, facilitating various roles including messaging and additional cellular functions.

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