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Questions and Answers
What is the term for the period of time before, during, and after a seizure?
What is the term for the period of time before, during, and after a seizure?
What type of seizure involves both hemispheres of the brain?
What type of seizure involves both hemispheres of the brain?
What is the term for a seizure that lasts for more than 5 minutes or where one seizure starts before the previous one has finished?
What is the term for a seizure that lasts for more than 5 minutes or where one seizure starts before the previous one has finished?
What is the purpose of anticonvulsant therapy?
What is the purpose of anticonvulsant therapy?
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What is the term for a seizure that involves sudden stiffness followed by jerking movements?
What is the term for a seizure that involves sudden stiffness followed by jerking movements?
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What is the term for seizures that occur without a known cause?
What is the term for seizures that occur without a known cause?
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What is a characteristic of goats when it comes to metabolizing antiparasitics?
What is a characteristic of goats when it comes to metabolizing antiparasitics?
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What is the mechanism of action of Benzimidazole?
What is the mechanism of action of Benzimidazole?
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What is the primary mechanism of action of praziquantel against cestodes?
What is the primary mechanism of action of praziquantel against cestodes?
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Which antiparasitic is particularly effective against liver fluke and Barber's pole worm?
Which antiparasitic is particularly effective against liver fluke and Barber's pole worm?
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What is the target of Levamisole?
What is the target of Levamisole?
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What is a characteristic of praziquantel's effectiveness against nematodes?
What is a characteristic of praziquantel's effectiveness against nematodes?
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What is the significance of the rumen in the context of Benzimidazole?
What is the significance of the rumen in the context of Benzimidazole?
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What is a notable feature of praziquantel's safety profile?
What is a notable feature of praziquantel's safety profile?
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Why is Triclabendazole used for trematodes?
Why is Triclabendazole used for trematodes?
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What is the safety profile of Tetrahydropyrimidines?
What is the safety profile of Tetrahydropyrimidines?
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Study Notes
Seizures
- A seizure is a sudden depolarization of a group of neurons leading to an abnormal synchronous electrical discharge from the Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Types of seizures:
- Partial seizure: involves a focal part of the brain
- Generalized seizure: involves both hemispheres of the brain
- Epilepsy: a condition associated with multiple unprovoked seizures
Ictal Periods
- Ictal: the physiological event itself (seizure)
- Pre-ictal: the period before a seizure
- Intra-ictal: the period during a seizure
- Inter-ictal: the period between seizures
- Post-ictal: the period after a seizure
Types of Seizures
- Tonic-clonic seizure (grand mal): an intense seizure characterized by stiffening (tonic) and jerking (clonic) movements
- Absence seizure (petit mal): a seizure characterized by brief periods of "tuning out"
Status Epilepticus
- A prolonged seizure lasting more than 5 minutes
- One seizure starting before the previous one has finished
Causes of Seizures
- Idiopathic epilepsy: no known cause
- Infectious causes:
- Toxoplasmosis
- Neosporosis
- Cryptococcosis
- Neoplasia (tumors)
- Toxins:
- Snail pellet
- Snake bite
- Strychnine
Anticonvulsant Therapy
- Goal: stabilize neuron membranes to prevent unwanted depolarization
- Mechanisms:
- CNS depression (most anticonvulsants)
- Poorly understood mechanisms (some anticonvulsants)
- Examples of anticonvulsants:
- Benzodiazepines
- Imepitoin
- Barbiturates
- Propofol
- Potassium bromide
- Levetiracetam
- Gabapentin
Seizure Management
- Two scenarios:
- Stopping a seizure that is occurring (seizure treatment)
- Preventing a future seizure (seizure prevention)
Antiparasitics in Goats and Sheep
- Goats metabolize antiparasitics faster than sheep, requiring higher doses.
- Praziquantel is the gold standard against cestodes, with a wide margin of safety.
Praziquantel
- Effective against cestodes, with some activity against trematodes and poor activity against nematodes.
- Modes of action (MOA) include increasing Ca2+ influx into cestodes and release from intracellular stores, leading to neuromuscular toxicity and paralysis.
Antitrematodals
- Closantel is effective against trematodes (flukes) and has some activity against nematodes.
- Effective against Haemonchus contortus (Barber's Pole Worm), with varying resistance levels.
- MOA involves complex spastic paralysis.
- Has good oral bioavailability, extensive protein binding, and a long elimination half-life.
- Mainly used in sheep for Barber's Pole Worm and Liver fluke.
Benzimidazole
- Binds to β-tubulin, inhibiting microtubule formation, disrupting cell division and maintenance.
- Has a wide safety margin.
- Broad-spectrum anthelmintic, effective against adult nematodes, trematodes (weak, except triclabendazole), and cestodes (weak).
- Rumen acts as a reservoir for the drug, prolonging its duration of action.
- Widespread resistance in ruminants, less so in other animals.
Triclabendazole
- More effective against trematodes than closantel.
Levamisole
- Agonist at the worm's nicotinic ACh receptors, leading to sustained muscle contraction and spastic paralysis.
- Has a narrow safety margin (2-6x).
- Water-soluble, used in in-water medication.
- Effective against nematodes only.
- Still used in combination drenches for sheep.
Tetrahydropyrimidines
- Mainly used in small animals.
- Causes spastic paralysis in nematodes.
- Closely related to levamisole (the "clear" drench).
- Very safe, used in puppies and kittens.
- Dog dose rate: 6.6mg/kg once.
- Toxic to dogs at 50mg/kg sid x 3 months.
- Includes pyrantel and oxantel.
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Description
Test your knowledge on seizures, partial and generalized seizures, epilepsy, and ictal periods. Learn about the different types of seizures and their characteristics.