Lexis 2
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Questions and Answers

What does the 'core meaning' of a word refer to?

  • Its intrinsic meaning found in a dictionary (correct)
  • The emotional connotation it carries
  • The different contexts in which it can be used
  • Its pronunciation

    • Homonymy refers to a word that has several related meanings.

    False

    What are the different types of knowledge involved in knowing a word?

    Meaning, pronunciation, spelling, collocates, and usage contexts.

    A _____ is a short coat with a hood worn for protection against rain.

    <p>anorak</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the term with its definition:

    <p>Core meaning = Intrinsic meaning found in a dictionary Polysemy = A word with several related meanings Homonymy = Different words that sound the same Metaphor = An imaginative way to describe something</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated range of vocabulary size for educated native speakers?

    <p>100,000 to 200,000 words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A native speaker's productive vocabulary is estimated to be equal to their recognition vocabulary.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many word families do researchers identify to exist in the English language?

    <p>54,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A native English-speaking university graduate is estimated to have a vocabulary size of about _____ word families.

    <p>20,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following words has a different form that may not be counted as a single lexical item?

    <p>'bear' in different contexts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A child of five typically has a vocabulary of about _____ to _____ word families.

    <p>4,000 to 5,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the vocabulary estimate with the corresponding speaker type:

    <p>Educated Native Speaker = 100,000 to 200,000 words Native Speaker Graduate = 20,000 word families Child of Five = 4,000 to 5,000 word families General Speaker = 40,000 words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do Schmitt and McCarthy highlight when discussing the size of the English language vocabulary?

    <p>Varied estimates of word counts due to definitions of what counts as a word.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the strongest feature in the links between lexical items?

    <p>Co-ordination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Native speakers retrieve words more slowly than non-native speakers.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three major classes of words mentioned?

    <p>Verbs, nouns, adjectives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Words that are connected by their sound similarities are called _____.

    <p>synophones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of associations to their descriptions:

    <p>Co-ordination = Words on the same level of detail Collocation = Words that are frequently associated together Hyponymy = A type of relationship where one word is a specific instance of another Superordination = A type of relationship where one word encompasses a broader category</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes derived words in our lexicon?

    <p>Stored whole and are instantly accessible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Receptive vocabulary refers to words that we can actively use in writing and speech.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common strategy for teaching vocabulary that aligns with how words are stored?

    <p>Modelling and drilling new lexical items</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The organization of words in our mind produces a ____-like set of associations.

    <p>web</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the vocabulary teaching techniques with their purposes:

    <p>Categorising = Helps make associations and connections Pointing out stress = Emphasizes pronunciation patterns Grouping by part of speech = Organizes vocabulary logically Collocating = Identifies words that commonly appear together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of strategy might native speakers use that second language learners might struggle with?

    <p>Instantaneous collocational associations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lexical items can be organized in terms of their meanings, sounds, and spelling patterns.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between receptive and productive vocabulary?

    <p>Receptive vocabulary is understanding of words, while productive vocabulary is the ability to use them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mental lexicon is organized in a systematic way so that learners can access words based on their _____.

    <p>associations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does connotation refer to?

    <p>The additional meanings that show attitudes towards things</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Connotations of words are always universal and shared by everyone.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'register' in language usage?

    <p>Register refers to the variation in language used by a particular group of people, often related to their occupation or interests.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The word 'suburb' is often associated with being _____ and dull.

    <p>middle-class</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms to their descriptions:

    <p>Connotation = The additional meaning of a word Register = The variation of language used by specific groups Neutral word = Used in general contexts Technical word = Used only by specialists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding connotation?

    <p>Connotations may vary based on personal experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Words can have different connotations in various cultures.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Give an example of a word that has a derogatory connotation.

    <p>Spinster</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Schmitt, how many words account for 95% of typical spoken interaction?

    <p>2,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Teaching beyond the core 2,000 words is considered an effective use of class time.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the ratio of content words to function words in a text?

    <p>lexical density</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Spoken English tends to have a lower _______ variety than written English.

    <p>lexical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following lexical items with their characteristics:

    <p>Delexicalised verbs = Require context to convey meaning Vague language = Used to soften assertions Basic nouns = Frequently employed in communication Discourse markers = Guide the flow of conversation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of vague language?

    <p>Kind of</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Learners can achieve communicative competence without mastering the core vocabulary.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of language is characterized by terms like 'so' or 'anyway'?

    <p>discourse markers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explicit teaching of lexis is particularly important at _______ levels.

    <p>lower</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the classroom strategies for teaching vocabulary with their description:

    <p>Incidental learning = Learning through context and exposure Explicit teaching = Focus on direct vocabulary instruction Strategy training = Helping learners cope with unknown words Repetition = Reinforcing vocabulary through review</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many words does a native speaker need to know to increase their communication effectiveness from 95% to 96%?

    <p>3,000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Incidental learning opportunities are more beneficial for learners with substantial vocabulary knowledge.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for focusing on core vocabulary in teaching?

    <p>To ensure effective competence in communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Using _______ nouns, verbs, and adjectives is common in spoken English.

    <p>basic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the terminology with their respective implications for teaching vocabulary:

    <p>Explicit vocabulary instruction = Necessary for lower-level learners Lexical density = Lower in spoken language Vague expressions = Used to sound less authoritative Delexicalised verbs = Have no strong independent meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the term 'register'?

    <p>A way of using language that varies by style, variety, and factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lexical differences are usually less significant than grammatical differences between varieties of a language.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one example of a type of collocation.

    <p>Make a mistake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In spoken English, the average native speaker's vocabulary is roughly ____ of that in written language.

    <p>half</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Register = Language variation according to context or social factors Variety = Different forms of a language used in specific geographical or social contexts Style = Type of language used depending on genre or formality Collocation = Words that frequently go together in predictable patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best represents a lexical difference in language?

    <p>The meaning of 'trucks' being 'lorries' in British English</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Colligation is another term for lexical collocation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do we call the ability to recognize a word's written form and spell it correctly?

    <p>Written form recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Certain English words have a discoursal role in spoken language; for example, the word '____' can mark a change of topic.

    <p>now</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following features with spoken and written English:

    <p>Clause = Standard unit of spoken English Sentence = Standard unit of written English Engagement = Allows for minimal exchanges in conversation Vocabulary size = Roughly double in written form compared to spoken</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following represents an example of a concept related to word association?

    <p>Words that sound similar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Word retrieval refers to the ability to remember words and their meanings quickly.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of vocabulary includes words that can actively be used in writing and speech?

    <p>Productive vocabulary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The term ____ refers to the relationships between words that are related in meaning.

    <p>synonymy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the vocabulary estimates with corresponding speaker types:

    <p>University graduate = Approximately 20,000-30,000 word families Native speaker = Approximately 30,000-40,000 word families Child = Approximately 5,000-10,000 word families Non-native speaker = Varies widely based on proficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which question would best check the characteristics of an object?

    <p>What is its color?</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The opposite of a mess is tidy.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary importance of pronunciation in word knowledge?

    <p>It helps learners know how words sound and where the stress falls.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The room's a _____!

    <p>mess</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following phonological activities with their descriptions:

    <p>Modelling = Demonstrating correct pronunciation Drilling = Repetitive practice of phonetic sounds Dictation = Writing down spoken words to improve listening Phonemic script = Visual representation of sounds in words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of words on any page of any book do the most frequent 2,000 headwords account for?

    <p>85%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The General Service List of English Words was first published in 1953.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of building corpora in language studies?

    <p>To analyze the frequency and usage of words.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The most common words in English should be the initial teaching goal, focusing on a list of __________ words.

    <p>2000</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of word frequency to their examples:

    <p>High-frequency words = Words commonly found in everyday language Low-frequency words = Specialized or technical vocabulary Content words = Nouns and verbs related to specific topics Function words = Words that perform grammatical roles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the advantages of using frequency counts in language teaching?

    <p>They provide insights into word usage in context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Teaching specialized vocabulary should always come before teaching high-frequency words.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can concordances help language learners?

    <p>They display the environment in which a word occurs, providing information about collocation, meaning, and part of speech.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'availability' refer to in vocabulary teaching?

    <p>How readily a word comes to mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Concrete items are generally less teachable than abstract ones.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one factor that affects the teachability of a word.

    <p>The ability to illustrate meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In vocabulary selection, the term 'range' refers to the number of different ______ in which a word occurs.

    <p>texts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following criteria with their descriptions:

    <p>Teachability = Ease of illustrating meaning Learnability = No phonological difficulties Availability = Easily recalled by learners Range = Diversity of contexts for a word</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following learns vocabulary more effectively based on their needs?

    <p>Foreign language learners with diverse needs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A word that is frequently occurring is guaranteed to be easy to learn.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of vocabulary is particularly relevant to a classroom setting?

    <p>Classroom language or metalanguage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Words that represent ______ objects are generally more available than abstract terms.

    <p>concrete</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following vocabulary concepts with their definitions:

    <p>Frequency = How often a word appears Teachability = Ease of teaching the word Learnability = Ease with which a word can be mastered Relevance = Importance of word to the learner's context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect affects a word's availability according to McCarthy?

    <p>Its concrete representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Learners should focus solely on frequently occurring vocabulary in their studies.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one common challenge for learners of English regarding delexicalized words?

    <p>They carry little meaning by themselves.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A word's ______ can be influenced by whether it has similar concepts in the learner's first language.

    <p>learnability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their implications for teaching vocabulary:

    <p>Teachability = Related to illustration Learnability = Free from phonological issues Frequency = Common in communication Relevance = Useful for the learner's goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vocabulary item would a learner in the USA be more likely to use instead of the British term 'tube'?

    <p>Subway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Grouping lexical items in teaching is universally encouraged without exception.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one common technique for introducing vocabulary to learners?

    <p>Using visuals or realia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Learners in a non-English speaking environment will primarily need vocabulary related to their __________.

    <p>country</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following vocabulary teaching techniques with their purpose:

    <p>Visuals = Help clarify meaning through images Contextualization = Link new words to known ones Lists = Facilitate quick recognition of words Anecdotes = Provide relatable examples to engage learners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an average range suggested for introducing new lexical items in a sixty-minute lesson?

    <p>8 to 12 items</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Contextualized vocabulary learning is deemed less effective than learning through word pairs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one abstract word that may be misunderstood by learners.

    <p>Problem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Research is inconclusive regarding whether learning vocabulary in ________ is superior to learning through pair translations.

    <p>context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following teaching approaches to their descriptions:

    <p>Lexical approach = Focuses on the teaching of word groups P.P.P. = Presentation-Practice-Production method Incidental learning = Acquiring vocabulary unintentionally during exposure De-contextualised learning = Learning vocabulary outside of meaningful context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the Distance Delta's view on vocabulary acquisition?

    <p>It is a constant process both in and out of the classroom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Lexical Approach provides clear guidance on designing a lexically-based syllabus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of vocabulary items are learners likely to need based on their interests?

    <p>Content words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The study of how vocabulary items are connected and stored in our minds reflects a ________ nature of vocabulary.

    <p>systematic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept of 'cognitive depth' related to vocabulary acquisition?

    <p>Making more decisions about the word</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Teaching vocabulary in isolation is more effective than teaching it within a phrase.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are false cognates, also known as 'faux amis'?

    <p>Words that look similar in two languages but have different meanings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In vocabulary teaching, _____ means checking that students truly understand the meaning of a word.

    <p>checking meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a technique to check meaning?

    <p>Only translating to L1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Collocation is not important for understanding a word's usage.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one strategy suggested to improve vocabulary acquisition.

    <p>Getting students to use the same vocabulary item multiple times in different contexts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A _____ is a type of beverage often associated with dinner, and it can be red, white, or sparkling.

    <p>wine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the vocabulary items with their usage examples:

    <p>To cry = To express emotion through tears To stagger = To walk unsteadily Hair = A physical feature that can be long, short, or curly Salad = A dish often eaten as an appetizer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason that vocabulary teaching is often found to be ineffective?

    <p>Only one application of a word is practiced.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Visual aids are particularly ineffective for lower-level learners.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Provide an example of a lexical item that may require checking for meaning.

    <p>Electric kettle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Understanding a word's _____ can help learners build a web of associations and deepen their knowledge.

    <p>meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it mean to 'personalize' vocabulary learning?

    <p>To relate vocabulary words to students' own experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary reason to show learners the written form of a word?

    <p>Different learning styles require visual reinforcement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Spelling patterns in English are always consistent with pronunciation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one type of meaningful task that can help learners practice lexis more deeply.

    <p>Storytelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A ______ is a body of language samples used in linguistic research.

    <p>corpus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following exercises with their purposes:

    <p>Gap-fills = Fill in missing words in sentences Crosswords = Solve clues using vocabulary Hangman = Guess letters to find a word Word association = Connect related words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following resources is NOT typically used when creating a corpus?

    <p>Textbooks on mathematics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The use of corpora can help identify the frequency and collocations of lexical items.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What disadvantage might some learners encounter when hearing new vocabulary?

    <p>Difficulty grasping new items solely from auditory exposure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of using corpora in language teaching?

    <p>To confirm teachers’ assumptions about language usage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Incidental learning is important for vocabulary acquisition.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one method for promoting incidental vocabulary learning in students?

    <p>Extensive reading using authentic materials.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Corpora can provide an unlimited amount of natural examples of language, _____ the need for invented sentences.

    <p>obviating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of corpus with its description:

    <p>COCA = A large corpus of contemporary American English SRI's Amex Data = A specialized corpus of travel agent interactions The British National Corpus = A comprehensive dataset covering British English Just the Word = A tool that helps users find word collocations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following strategies is NOT associated with promoting incidental vocabulary learning?

    <p>Focused vocabulary lists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Teachers can create their own corpora for classroom use.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What size is the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)?

    <p>More than 450 million words.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Using corpora allows students to investigate their own _____ through looking at correct use.

    <p>errors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Lewis suggest is necessary for acquiring 1,000 vocabulary items?

    <p>125 hours of instruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the vocabulary learning strategies with their descriptions:

    <p>Extensive reading = Reading multiple texts to improve vocabulary Authentic listening = Exposure to real-life spoken language Communicative tasks = Activities focused on interaction and meaning Project work = Collaborative learning on a topic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Corpora are solely for serious and analytical study.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can students use corpora to create class materials?

    <p>By producing worksheets and activities like gap-fills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A spoken corpus of travel agent interactions is an example of a _____ corpus.

    <p>specialized</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes a collection of real-life texts for language analysis?

    <p>Corpus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Incidental learning refers to planned vocabulary instruction by the teacher.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a group of words sharing the same root with different affixes?

    <p>Word family</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ of a word refers to its 'dictionary meaning' without social or regional interpretations.

    <p>denotation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a delexicalised verb?

    <p>Take</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Teaching lexis explicitly is unnecessary for language learners.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define incidental learning in the context of vocabulary acquisition.

    <p>Learning that occurs naturally without formal instruction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Linguistic varieties governed by context are referred to as __________.

    <p>register</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of vocabulary knowledge is described as words we can actively use?

    <p>Productive vocabulary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a strategy for learning vocabulary from context?

    <p>Guessing from context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Using mnemonic strategies is one of the least important vocabulary learning strategies.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a false cognate? Provide an example.

    <p>A false cognate is a word that sounds similar in two languages but has different meanings. For example, 'sensible' in English means 'sensitive' in Spanish.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Strategies for coping with low-frequency words include _____ from context, using word parts, and mnemonic learning.

    <p>guessing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the strategies to their descriptions:

    <p>Deducing meaning from context = Understanding a new word by analyzing surrounding text Using a dictionary = Finding information about pronunciation and meanings Recording vocabulary = Keeping a systematic record of new words Extensive reading = Reading a large amount of material to encounter new vocabulary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a memory strategy for vocabulary learning?

    <p>Using synonyms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Culturally-specific lexis can be easily understood by all learners without additional context.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does ‘zero affixation’ refer to in vocabulary learning?

    <p>Zero affixation refers to a word that can function in multiple parts of speech without any modification, like 'round'.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Students may confuse _____ and polysemy, where the latter refers to a word having multiple meanings.

    <p>homonymy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the terminology related to meaning issues in vocabulary:

    <p>False Cognates = Words that look similar in different languages but have different meanings Idiomatic expressions = Phrases whose meanings are not deducible from the individual words Synonymy = Words that have similar meanings but differing usages Polysemy = A word with multiple related meanings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phonological challenge might affect a learner from a phonetic language?

    <p>Understanding silent letters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rote vocabulary learning is an effective strategy for understanding complex word meanings.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What problem can arise from spelling similarities in vocabulary learning?

    <p>Spelling similarities can lead to confusion with pronunciation and meaning, as in the case of 'colleague' and 'college'.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lexical items can be categorized based on their _______ characteristics.

    <p>phonological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an effective way to revise vocabulary according to the strategies discussed?

    <p>Using mobile apps like Word Learner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Vocabulary Size

    • English vocabulary estimates range from 400,000 to millions of words. Defining "word" is complex (e.g., "loved" vs. "loving," multiple meanings of "bear," phrasal verbs).
    • Educated native speakers likely recognize 100,000 to 200,000 words (including derived words). Estimates are sometimes as low as 40,000.
    • A reasonable estimate suggests educated native speakers can understand 45,000–60,000 items, though productive vocabulary is possibly lower.
    • 54,000 word families were identified in a 1963 dictionary. A 5-year-old's vocabulary is around 4,000-5,000 word families, increasing by about 1,000 annually, leading to a university graduate's vocabulary of roughly 20,000 word families.
    • Vocabulary size is not uniform; usage frequency varies across genres and contexts.
    • The 2,000 most frequent words account for at least 85% of words in any book or spoken text, regardless of topic.
    • Learners need to see written form to support oral work, especially at lower levels where spelling patterns differ from pronunciation. Varying methods of presentation (seeing words before hearing them) caters to different learning styles. Connecting words like "tough" and "rough" aids spelling memorization.

    The Mental Lexicon

    • Native speakers’ large vocabularies and rapid access suggest a structured mental organization.
    • Lexical items are grouped semantically, with interconnected associations and networks.
    • These connections link to encyclopedic knowledge, forming complex web-like associations.
    • Strongest links exist between coordinates (e.g., bread-butter, good-bad).
    • Collocations (e.g., bright-red, fish-finger) exhibit strong associations.
    • Superordination, hyponymy, synonymy, and antonyms are weaker associations.
    • Phonological features (word beginnings/endings, syllables, stress, rhythm) strongly influence associations, especially in children.
    • Parts of speech (verbs, nouns, adjectives) exhibit strong connections.
    • Spelling patterns create associations.
    • Words are often stored in chunks, including derived words.
    • Native speakers’ rapid word retrieval is due to high frequency and use.

    Teaching Implications

    • Similar strategies for building a mental lexicon apply to second language learners.
    • Learners’ first language lexicon influences new language learning.
    • A single integrated network is increasingly viewed as the mental organization for bilingual speakers.
    • Teaching methods like modeling, drilling, and highlighting stress/sound similarities reinforce lexicon storage patterns. Grouping words, personal connections, and lexical sets create meaning.

    Knowing a Word

    • Word knowledge varies significantly; some words are vaguely known, others fully understood and usable.
    • Knowing a word involves multiple aspects: receptive and productive vocabulary (understanding vs. use), meaning, context, collocations, pronunciation, and spelling.

    Meaning of Words

    • Referential, denotative, or core meaning defines a word's dictionary definition.
    • Words often have multiple meanings (homonymy) or related meanings (polysemy).
    • Metaphorical language use is essential for comprehension of unfamiliar or novel metaphors.

    Connotation

    • Connotation, or affective/emotive meaning, represents additional meaning related to people's attitudes.
    • Connotation is shared by groups (cultural, social, gender, age), or restricted to individuals based on experience.
    • Connotation can be positive, negative or more complex.
    • Dictionary definitions may include "derogatory" information.
    • Example: "summer afternoon" evokes associations (sunshine, beaches, laziness).
    • Cultural schemata differ in evoked connotations.

    Register

    • Register refers to a specific vocabulary suited for a specific group (occupation, interests).
    • Register may have distinguishing words, usage patterns or grammar.
    • "Jargon" is sometimes a less polite term for register.
    • Register can be a general term including variety and style.

    Variety

    • Variety, often geographical or social, leads to variations in language (e.g., British English, Australian English).
    • Differences in vocabulary are frequent (example: "hood" vs. "bonnet", "stroller" vs. "buggy").
    • Grammatival differences also occur.

    Style

    • Style refers to language type for a genre or formality level.
    • There are structural and lexical differences (e.g., Latin-origin words tend to be formal).

    Word Association

    • Knowing a word involves associating it with other words.
    • Associations include similar-sounding words, co-occurring words, collocated words and words related in meaning through coordination, synonymy, antonymy, and other relations.

    Written Form: Spelling

    • Recognizing and correctly spelling words is a learned skill.
    • Some words have common misspellings (e.g., "definitely," "separate").
    • Spelling variations by language variety or within a word's form (e.g., "practise" / "practice") can be problematic, as can interference from the student's first language (L1) spelling.
    • Learners need to see written forms to support oral work, especially at low levels where spelling patterns may be inconsistent.

    Phonological Form: Syllables, Sounds and Stress

    • Understanding sound and pronunciation is crucial.
    • Awareness of sounds, syllable count, stress patterns and similar-sounding words are important.

    Word Class

    • Recognizing parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives) is fundamental even without knowing the labels.

    Collocation

    • Collocation encompasses lexical and grammatical collocations.
    • Lexical collocations include "make a mistake".
    • Grammatical collocations include prepositions ("apologise for something," "be good at something").
    • Word order in binomials and trinomials is also key ("a black and white television").

    Retrieval

    • Retrieval, meaning remembering a word, can be problematic temporarily.
    • Ability to recall and produce words is essential.

    Written and Spoken Lexis

    • Historically, research on English structure & lexis relied on written sources.
    • Corpus linguistics has revealed differences between spoken and written English.
    • Spoken English units are clauses, not sentences.
    • One-word turns can be meaningful in spoken interactions ("Ready?" – "Yeah").
    • Spoken English uses words in a conversational role ( e.g., "now").
    • Spoken English vocabulary is about half the size of written vocabulary.
    • A core vocabulary of 2,000 words accounts for around 95% of spoken interaction.
    • Vague language, repetition, and lower lexical density are characteristics of spoken English.
    • Vague language, such as “kind of,” is not an indication of poor usage but rather a feature of spontaneous communication.
    • Discourse markers are often more informal ("anyway" versus "another important aspect is").
    • Many delexicalised verbs (e.g., "get," "do," "make") with associated collocations are used.
    • Simple nouns, verbs, and adjectives are common in spoken English.
    • Deictic expressions (pointing out place/time) are crucial in spoken language.

    Lexis in Language Learning

    • Explicit and implicit teaching are both necessary.
    • Teachers must choose which words to teach learners explicitly and how to group them.
    • Vocabulary acquisition is a process.
    • Learners need vocabulary-learning strategies.
    • Frequency of use (and range) are important factors when selecting vocabulary.
    • Learners' needs should be paramount in vocabulary selection, considering individual subjects, interests, and contexts.

    Explicit or Direct Teaching of Lexis

    • Explicit vocabulary instruction is important, especially for lower-level learners.

    Range

    • Range refers to the number of different contexts a word appears in.

    Availability

    • Availability refers to how easily a word comes to mind.

    Teachability and Learnability

    • Teachability considers how easily a word's meaning can be illustrated, considering concrete vs. abstract concepts, links to other words (lexical sets), and similar concepts in the learner's first language.
    • Learnability evaluates potential difficulties with pronunciation, spelling, similarity to first language words or other learned words, grammatical issues, cultural relevance, and overall utility to the learner.

    Learners’ Needs

    • Learners need frequently used words for frequent use.
    • Learning words relevant to individual needs and situations is essential, including topic-based lexis.

    Selecting Lexis in Different Contexts

    • Vocabulary selection should consider the learner's local variety of English and their individual needs.

    Ordering Lexis

    • Criteria for ordering vocabulary for teaching include frequency, structural fit, teachability, appearance in texts, student needs, and topic.

    Grouping Lexical Items for Teaching Purposes

    • Grouping words into lexical sets, based on semantic relationships, can aid comprehension and memory.

    How Many Items?

    • Ideally, a vocabulary lesson should introduce 8-12 new, productively usable words, though not all will be retained by the learners.

    Introducing Lexis

    • Contextualisation is an important approach, making words memorable.
    • De-contextualised learning can also be effective.

    Checking Meaning

    • Ensuring comprehensive understanding is vital. Meaning should be verified (or established) considering word connotations, use in various registers, styles and varieties. Problems with false cognates should also be addressed if they appear in the targeted vocabulary.

    Pronunciation

    • Emphasise pronunciation through modelling, drilling, and listening activities.

    Vocabulary Practice Activities

    • Various methods for practicing lexis are available (gap-fills, crosswords, hangman, information gaps, odd one out, pelmanism, labelling pictures, ordering words, matching, videos, word association, storytelling, discussions, etc.).

    Using Corpora

    • Corpora (collections of language samples) are valuable resources for examining language use, including frequency, meaning variations, collocations, grammatical patterns, and connotations. Corpora can support teaching assumptions with data and provide authentic examples of language use.
    • Corpora facilitates inquiry-based, student-center learning and aids in error correction. Students can use corpora to reinforce language, discover patterns, and infer meaning.
    • Several corpora are publicly accessible, including the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA).
    • Teachers can create their own corpora for use in the classroom.

    Incidental Learning

    • Incidental learning is valuable due to the large size of the lexicon; repeated exposure outside the classroom is essential.
    • Extensive reading (graded readers or authentic texts), listening (songs, news, TV), communicative tasks ( storytelling, TPR, role-play), online activities, and project work promote incidental learning.

    Vocabulary Learning Strategies

    • Learners need tools to acquire vocabulary because low-frequency words can be guessed from context (if high-frequency words are known).
    • Strategies include guessing from context, using word parts, mnemonic devices, choosing words to learn, dealing with unknown words (ignoring, L1 or FL comparisons, context deduction, seeking help, or consulting a dictionary), using dictionaries (pronunciation, grammar, frequency guides,), recording vocabulary, memory strategies (linking to others, spidergrams, associations, keywords), reviewing/revising (cards, apps), and understanding word formation rules (prefixes, suffixes, compounds).

    Problems in Vocabulary Teaching

    • Issues relating to meaning, form, phonology, and appropriacy should be anticipated.
    • Problems may include false cognates, homonymy/polysemy, idiomaticity, spelling similarities, synonymy, overlapping uses in first language, multiple parts of speech (zero affixation), culturally-specific lexis, metonymy (indirect references), spelling rules, grammatical variations, silent letters, consonant clusters, L1 transfer, register issues, and variety variations.

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    Description

    This quiz explores the intricacies of English vocabulary size and the concept of the mental lexicon. Participants will learn about estimates of word recognition among native speakers, the development of vocabulary from childhood to adulthood, and the variability in word frequency across different contexts. Test your understanding of vocabulary dynamics!

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