English Proficiency Course Introduction

Introduction to the Course

• The course aims to improve English proficiency through reading passages, exercises, and activities.
• The course will be assessed through quizzes, assignments, a midterm exam, and a final exam.
• The weightage of each assessment is: quizzes and assignments (15% each), midterm exam (30%), and final exam (40%).

The Dictionary

• A dictionary is a book that lists words of a language, giving their spellings, pronunciation, grammar, origin, meanings, and uses.
• There are different types of dictionaries, such as language dictionaries, scientific dictionaries, and art dictionaries.
• As students of English, the focus is on language dictionaries, e.g., Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary and Webster's Dictionary.

Uses of a Dictionary

• Spelling: A dictionary helps with correct spellings and provides rules for spelling.
• Pronunciation: A dictionary provides a table of pronunciation and guides on how to use it.
• Grammar: A dictionary indicates the part of speech a word belongs to (e.g., noun, verb, adjective).
• Origin of words: A dictionary may provide the etymology (origin) of words, especially in older dictionaries.
• Meaning: A dictionary provides definitions, explanations, and examples of word usage.
• Usage: A dictionary shows how words are used in different contexts, including idioms, phrases, and colloquialisms.
• Synonyms and antonyms: A dictionary lists words with similar or opposite meanings.
• Foreign words and phrases: A dictionary may include foreign words and phrases, such as "coup d'état" and "vice versa".
• General information: Older dictionaries may include general information, such as tables of conversion, weights, and measures.

How to Use a Dictionary

• Alphabetical order: Dictionary entries are arranged in alphabetical order.
• Guide words: Guide words are bolded words at the top of each page, helping to locate a specific word.
• Thumb through the pages: Quickly flip through the pages to find the desired word using the guide words.

Story Time: Raven and the Coming of Daylight

• The story is a folk tale from North America, about Raven and the coming of daylight.
• The story revolves around Raven's cleverness in releasing daylight from a cedar box guarded by Gull.### Introduction to the Story
• The story is a folk tale, an ancient myth that attempts to explain a natural phenomenon, specifically how daylight came to the Earth.
• The story is an attempt by mankind to understand their surroundings and give meaning to life.

Plot Summary

• The story is about the release of daylight over the Earth.
• The main characters are Raven, Gull, and a girl.
• Raven and Gull are birds, with Raven belonging to the Crow family and Gull being a type of seagull.

Key Events

• Gull was the custodian of daylight, keeping it in a cedar box under its wing.
• Raven thought that if Gull had a thorn in its foot, it would make Gull cry, and daylight would be released.
• A thorn magically appeared in Gull's foot, causing it to cry, and daylight was released from the box.
• The sun slipped out of the box, bringing daylight to the Earth.

Character Relationships

• Gull and Raven are cousins in the story.

Truth or False Statements

• True statements:
  • Raven and Gull are birds.
  • Gull and Raven are related (cousins).
  • The sun slipped out of the box.
• False statements:
  • The removal of the thorn from Raven's foot is the main idea of the story.
  • Raven felt important being custodian of daylight.
  • Daylight was kept under a wing.
  • Raven pushed a thorn into the girl's foot.
  • Gull at once opened the box.
  • Gail Robinson is the author of the story (the authors are Gail Robinson and Douglas Hill).

Course Overview

• The course aims to improve English proficiency through reading passages, exercises, and activities.
• The course is assessed through quizzes, assignments, a midterm exam, and a final exam, with a weightage of 15%, 15%, 30%, and 40% respectively.

Dictionary

• A dictionary is a book that lists words of a language, giving their spellings, pronunciation, grammar, origin, meanings, and uses.
• There are different types of dictionaries, including language dictionaries, scientific dictionaries, and art dictionaries.

Uses of a Dictionary

• A dictionary helps with correct spellings and provides rules for spelling.
• A dictionary provides a table of pronunciation and guides on how to use it.
• A dictionary indicates the part of speech a word belongs to (e.g., noun, verb, adjective).
• A dictionary may provide the etymology (origin) of words, especially in older dictionaries.
• A dictionary provides definitions, explanations, and examples of word usage.
• A dictionary shows how words are used in different contexts, including idioms, phrases, and colloquialisms.
• A dictionary lists words with similar or opposite meanings (synonyms and antonyms).
• A dictionary may include foreign words and phrases, such as "coup d'état" and "vice versa".
• Older dictionaries may include general information, such as tables of conversion, weights, and measures.

How to Use a Dictionary

• Dictionary entries are arranged in alphabetical order.
• Guide words are bolded words at the top of each page, helping to locate a specific word.
• Quickly flip through the pages to find the desired word using the guide words.

Story: Raven and the Coming of Daylight

• The story is a folk tale from North America, about Raven and the coming of daylight.
• The story revolves around Raven's cleverness in releasing daylight from a cedar box guarded by Gull.

Introduction to the Story

• The story is a folk tale, an ancient myth that attempts to explain a natural phenomenon, specifically how daylight came to the Earth.
• The story is an attempt by mankind to understand their surroundings and give meaning to life.

Plot Summary

• The story is about the release of daylight over the Earth.
• The main characters are Raven, Gull, and a girl.
• Raven and Gull are birds, with Raven belonging to the Crow family and Gull being a type of seagull.

Key Events

• Gull was the custodian of daylight, keeping it in a cedar box under its wing.
• Raven thought that if Gull had a thorn in its foot, it would make Gull cry, and daylight would be released.
• A thorn magically appeared in Gull's foot, causing it to cry, and daylight was released from the box.
• The sun slipped out of the box, bringing daylight to the Earth.

Character Relationships

• Gull and Raven are cousins in the story.

Truth or False Statements

• True statements: Raven and Gull are birds, Gull and Raven are related (cousins), and the sun slipped out of the box.
• False statements: The removal of the thorn from Raven's foot is the main idea of the story, Raven felt important being custodian of daylight, Daylight was kept under a wing, Raven pushed a thorn into the girl's foot, Gull at once opened the box, and Gail Robinson is the author of the story.

English Pronunciation Basics

• English language has 44 sounds, which cannot be fully represented by the 26 letters of the alphabet.
• Phonetic symbols are used to represent the sounds of English and can be found in dictionaries.

Vowel Sounds

• English has 20 vowel sounds, divided into short and long vowels.
• Short vowels include: e as in "pit", a as in "fact", e as in "hat", u as in "but", oo as in "put", and ʊ as in "about".
• Long vowels include: ee as in "see", ah as in "car", eh as in "pet", oa as in "go", and oo as in "boot".
• Long vowels are indicated by a little dot in front of them to show they are lengthened.

Diphthongs

• Diphthongs are sounds made by combining two vowel sounds.
• There are 8 diphthongs in English: a as in "say", i as in "bye", oi as in "toy", o as in "go", u as in "cow", a as in "fare", i as in "pear", and e as in "her".

Consonant Sounds

• There are 24 consonant sounds in English.
• Consonant sounds are produced by a complete or partial stoppage of breath.
• Examples of consonant sounds: b, p, t, d, k, m, n, ng, f, v, s, z, h, j, w, r, l, and sh.

Stress

• Stress is the extra force used in pronouncing or speaking a particular word.
• English is a stress-timed language, and stress varies in different words.
• Dictionaries indicate the stress of a word with a tiny mark above the word.

Words with Same Spelling but Different Meanings

• Some words in English have the same spelling but different meanings due to different stress.
• Examples: "rebel" (noun) and "rebel" (verb), "present" (noun) and "present" (verb).

Importance of Stress and Pronunciation

• Stress can change the meaning of words, e.g., photo, photograph, photography, and photographic.
• Practice pronouncing words correctly, paying attention to the stress.

Pronunciation using Dictionaries

• English words can have confusing spellings, making it difficult to pronounce them correctly.
• Phonemic symbols in dictionaries indicate each speech sound, helping with pronunciation.
• Examples of words with different pronunciations:
  • Chorus (k sound)
  • Church (chey sound)
  • Ration (sh sound)
  • Machine (sh sound)

Vowels

• There are 20 vowel phonemes in English:
  • 7 short vowels
  • 5 long vowels (indicated by two small dots in front of the symbol)
  • 8 diphthong vowels (produced by combining two vowel sounds)

Consonants

• There are 24 consonant sounds in English, produced by the complete or partial stoppage of breath.

Stress

• Stress is the extra force used in pronouncing or speaking a particular word.
• Dictionaries indicate stress with a tiny mark on top of a word.
• Examples of words with different stress:
  • Mother (first part stressed)
  • Hotel (first part stressed)
  • Rebel (n: rebel, v: rebel)
  • Present (n: present, adj: present, v: pre`sent)

Computers in Daily Life

• Computers are an integral part of our lives, affecting many aspects of daily life.
• Examples of computer use:
  • Offices and public organizations
  • Banking and financial transactions
  • Film and TV production
  • Shopping and retail
  • Personal errands

Exercises

• Exercise I: Identify words heard in the passage about computers.
• Exercise II: Use a dictionary to find the correct stress for given words.

Understanding Computers

• A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores, capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters, and characters.
• The basic idea of a computer is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that turn certain switches on and off, or magnetize or demagnetize the cores.

Processing of Information

• The basic job of computers is the processing of information, defined as a device that accepts information in the form of instructions (program) and characters (data), performs mathematical and/or logical operations, and then supplies results of these operations.
• The program, or part of it, which tells the computer what to do and provides the information needed to solve the problem, is kept inside the computer in a place called memory.

Powers of Computers

• Computers have three basic capabilities: circuits for performing arithmetic operations, means of communicating with the user, and circuits that can make decisions.
• Certain computers (minicomputers and microcomputers) are used to control directly things such as robots, aircraft navigation systems, medical instruments, etc.

Input and Output Devices

• Common methods of inputting information include using punched cards, magnetic tape, disks, and terminals.
• Input devices read the information into the computer, and output devices include printers and CRT display screens.

Circuits that Make Decisions

• Computer circuits can make decisions, but only of a limited type: Is one number less than another?, Are two numbers equal?, and Is one number greater than another?

Speed and Limitations

• A computer can solve a series of problems and make hundreds, even thousands, of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored.
• A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality; it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any valuable judgments.

Key Concepts

• Computers are machines capable of processing and outputting information.
• Instructions and data must be given to the computer to act on.
• Computers have limitations, such as only being able to make logical decisions and not being able to do anything without being told what to do.

Connectives and Link Words: References

• References are words or phrases that link ideas within a text, making it smoother to read and increasing reading speed and comprehension.
• References can be:
  • Relative pronouns (e.g. his, her, its)
  • Demonstrative pronouns (e.g. this, that, these)
  • Adverbs (e.g. then, next, previously)
  • Substitutes for words that have come earlier or will come later

Connectives

• Connectives are transitional markers that connect ideas together, indicating relationships between them.
• Types of connectives:
  • Result (e.g. thus, therefore, consequently)
  • Contrast (e.g. but, however, in contrast)
  • Comparison (e.g. like, similarly, equally)
  • Illustration/Example (e.g. for example, to illustrate, including)
  • Cause and Effect (e.g. because, since, as a result)
  • Series/Time Sequence (e.g. one, first, next, previously)
  • Addition (e.g. and, also, furthermore)

Examples of Connectives

• Result:
  • Thus, therefore, consequently, accordingly, as a result
• Contrast:
  • But, however, in contrast, conversely, nevertheless, yet
• Comparison:
  • Like, similarly, equally, just as, in the same way
• Illustration/Example:
  • For example, to illustrate, once, for instance, such as
• Cause and Effect:
  • Because, since, as a result, so, if...then
• Series/Time Sequence:
  • One, first, next, after, previously, soon, meanwhile
• Addition:
  • And, also, furthermore, in addition, second, third, finally

References and Connectives in Practice

• Sample paragraphs demonstrate the use of references and connectives to link ideas together.
• Exercises help identify references and connectives in given paragraphs.

Recap

• Recognizing references and connectives improves reading speed and comprehension.
• Knowing the different types of connectives helps to better understand relationships between ideas in a text.

History of Computers

• The first calculating device was the ten fingers of a man’s hands, which is why today we still count in tens and multiples of tens.

Abacus and Mechanical Calculating Machines

• The abacus, a bead frame, was invented and is still used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read.
• In the 17th and 18th centuries, many people tried to find easy ways of calculating, including J.Napier, who devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, and Henry Briggs, who produced logarithm tables.
• Calculus, another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by Sir Isaac Newton and Leibnitz.

Development of Computers

• The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of several people’s experiments, using a series of ten toothed gear wheels.
• Charles Babbage, an Englishman, designed a machine called ‘The Analytical Engine’ in 1830, but never finished it.
• In 1930, the first analog computer was built by Vannevar Bush, an American.
• The first digital computer, Mark I, was completed in 1944 by Professor Howard Aiken and IBM.
• John von Newmann developed the idea of keeping instructions inside the computer’s memory in 1946.
• The first commercial computers, using vacuum tubes, came out in 1950.
• The second generation of computers, using transistors, was developed in 1960 and were smaller, faster, and more dependable.
• The third generation of computers, using integrated circuits, appeared in 1965 and could do a million calculations in a second.
• The fourth generation of computers, with microminiaturization, has arrived, making computers even smaller and faster.

Characteristics of Computers

• The development of computers has led to a rapid increase in speed and decrease in size, with the possibility of computers becoming obsolete quickly.
• Computers have evolved from using vacuum tubes to transistors to integrated circuits, making them smaller and more dependable.

Understanding Word Formation

• An English word can be divided into three parts: prefix, stem, and suffix.
• Prefix: comes before the stem, usually changes the meaning of a word (e.g., de- in demagnetize means 'reduce' or 'reverse').
• Stem: the root of the word, the fundamental element common to all forms of the word (e.g., measure).
• Suffix: attached to the end of the stem, usually changes the part of speech (e.g., -er in programmer means 'someone who').
• Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as Affixes.

Prefixes and Suffixes

• Prefixes:
  • usually change the meaning of a word (e.g., im- in immeasurable means 'not capable of being measured').
  • examples: de-, re-, en-, inter-, trans-
• Suffixes:
  • usually change the part of speech (e.g., -able in breakable changes verb to adjective).
  • examples: -ance, -ence, -er, -ist, -ness, -ion, -ly, -al, -ic, -ful

Word Formation Examples

• Stem: act
  • Prefix: re- (e.g., react, reenact)
  • Suffix: -ion (e.g., action), -ive (e.g., active), -less (e.g., actionless)

Locating Base Words

• Difficulty in locating base words due to spelling changes when suffixes are added.
• Rules to locate base words:
  1. If a base word ends in e, the e may be dropped when a suffix is added (e.g., mature + ity = maturity).
  2. If a base word ends in y, the y may be changed to i when a suffix is added (e.g., harmony + ous = harmonious).
  3. Base words may undergo other spelling changes when suffixes are added (e.g., reclaim + ation = reclamation).

Exercise Answers

• Exercise 1: Locate base words in boldface words.
• Exercise 2: Identify parts of speech for words with suffixes.
• Exercise 3: Fill in blanks with appropriate forms of words (operation, acceptance, solution, remark, communication, calculation, mechanic, necessity, dependence, technology).

Word Formation - Prefixes

• A prefix is a letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a stem/base word to create a new word.
• Prefixes can change the meaning of a word, e.g., "un-" means "not" or "opposite of", as in "unhappy" (not happy).

List of Common Prefixes

• un- (not, opposite of)
• non- (not, without)
• dis- (not, opposite of)
• in- (not, opposite of, in)
• im- (not, opposite of)
• il- (not, opposite of)
• a- (not, without)
• pre- (before)
• post- (after)
• anti- (against, opposing)
• pro- (for, in favor of)
• inter- (between, among)
• hyper- (excessive, beyond)
• mal- (bad, wrong)
• mis- (bad, wrong)
• pseudo- (false)
• semi- (half, partly)

Exercise 1: Defining Words with Prefixes

• Examples of using prefixes to create new words, e.g. "asocial" (prefix "a-" + stem "social")

Study of Prefixes

• Negative and positive prefixes
  • Negative prefixes: un-, non-, dis-, in-, im-, il-, a-
  • Positive prefixes: re-, over-, multi-, inter-
• Prefixes of size
  • semi- (half, partly)
  • macro- (large)
  • micro- (small)
  • maxi- (big)
  • mini- (little)
• Prefixes of location
  • inter- (between, among)
  • super- (over)
  • trans- (across)
  • ex- (out)
  • sub- (under)
• Prefixes of time and order
  • ante- (before)
  • pre- (before)
  • post- (after)
  • retro- (backward)
• Prefixes of numbers
  • semi- (half)
  • mono- (one)
  • bi- (two)
  • tri- (three)
  • quad- (four)
  • multi- (many)
• Other prefixes
  • pro- (for)
  • auto- (self)
  • co- (together)
  • neo- (new)
  • pan- (all)

Exercises 2-4: Using Prefixes

• Exercises to practice using prefixes to create new words and identifying prefixes in sentences

Review of Suffixes

• Review of suffixes and how they work

Synonyms

• Words that have the same or nearly the same meaning
• Characteristics of synonyms:
  • Similar meanings in only one sense
  • Shades of meaning in addition to the shared meaning
• Examples of synonyms: big, large, huge, enormous, monumental, gigantic, immense, and colossal