English Grammar: Parts of Speech

Noun: Person, place, thing, or idea.
- Types: Common, proper, abstract, collective.
Pronoun: Replaces a noun (e.g., he, she, it).
- Types: Personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative.
Verb: Action or state of being.
- Types: Action verbs, linking verbs, auxiliary (helping) verbs.
Adjective: Describes or modifies a noun.
- Types: Descriptive, quantitative, demonstrative, possessive.
Adverb: Modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb.
- Answers questions: How, when, where, why, to what extent.
Preposition: Shows relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words.
- Examples: in, on, at, between, under.
Conjunction: Connects words, phrases, or clauses.
- Types: Coordinating (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), subordinating (although, because), correlative (both...and, either...or).

Simple Sentence: Contains a subject and a verb; conveys a complete thought.
- Example: The cat sleeps.
Compound Sentence: Contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
- Example: I wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain.
Complex Sentence: Contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
- Example: Although it was raining, we went for a walk.
Compound-Complex Sentence: Contains at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
- Example: Although it was raining, we went for a walk, and we enjoyed it.

Present:
- Simple (I walk), Continuous (I am walking), Perfect (I have walked), Perfect Continuous (I have been walking).
Past:
- Simple (I walked), Continuous (I was walking), Perfect (I had walked), Perfect Continuous (I had been walking).
Future:
- Simple (I will walk), Continuous (I will be walking), Perfect (I will have walked), Perfect Continuous (I will have been walking).

Subject-Verb Agreement: A singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb.
- Example: The dog barks (singular), The dogs bark (plural).
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement: A pronoun must agree in number and gender with its antecedent.
- Example: Everyone must bring their own lunch (singular antecedent).

Run-on Sentences: Two or more independent clauses incorrectly joined.
- Fix: Use a conjunction or punctuation.
Sentence Fragments: Incomplete sentences missing a subject or verb.
Misplaced Modifiers: Descriptive words placed too far from the word they modify.
Incorrect Verb Form: Using present tense instead of past, or vice versa.

Active Voice: Subject performs the action (e.g., The chef cooked a meal).
Passive Voice: Subject receives the action (e.g., A meal was cooked by the chef).
Formal vs. Informal Language: Choose appropriate tone based on audience and context.
Conciseness: Avoid unnecessary words; be clear and to the point.

Nouns: Represent people, places, things, or ideas; classified into common (general names), proper (specific names), abstract (concepts), and collective (groups).
Pronouns: Substitute for nouns to avoid repetition; categorized into personal (e.g., he, she), possessive (e.g., mine, yours), reflexive (e.g., myself), and demonstrative (e.g., this, those).
Verbs: Indicate actions or states of being; types include action verbs (perform actions), linking verbs (connect subject and complement), and auxiliary (helping) verbs (assist main verbs).
Adjectives: Provide description or modification for nouns; can be descriptive (quality), quantitative (amount), demonstrative (specific), and possessive (ownership).
Adverbs: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; answer essential questions: how, when, where, why, to what extent.
Prepositions: Establish relationships between nouns/pronouns and other words; common examples include in, on, at, between, under.
Conjunctions: Connect words, phrases, or clauses; include coordinating (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), subordinating (although, because), and correlative (both...and, either...or).

Simple Sentences: Comprise a subject and a verb, expressing a complete thought (e.g., "The cat sleeps").
Compound Sentences: Feature two independent clauses linked by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., "I wanted to walk, but it started to rain").
Complex Sentences: Include an independent clause alongside one or more dependent clauses (e.g., "Although it was raining, we went for a walk").
Compound-Complex Sentences: Contain multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause (e.g., "Although it was raining, we went for a walk, and we enjoyed it").

Present Tense:
- Simple (I walk)
- Continuous (I am walking)
- Perfect (I have walked)
- Perfect Continuous (I have been walking)
Past Tense:
- Simple (I walked)
- Continuous (I was walking)
- Perfect (I had walked)
- Perfect Continuous (I had been walking)
Future Tense:
- Simple (I will walk)
- Continuous (I will be walking)
- Perfect (I will have walked)
- Perfect Continuous (I will have been walking)

Subject-Verb Agreement: Requires that a singular subject pairs with a singular verb, while a plural subject pairs with a plural verb (e.g., "The dog barks" vs. "The dogs bark").
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement: Mandates that a pronoun matches its antecedent in number and gender (e.g., "Everyone must bring their own lunch").

Period (.): Concludes declarative statements.
Comma (,): Separates items in lists, clauses, or adjectives for clarity.
Semicolon (;): Joins closely related independent clauses without a conjunction.
Colon (:): Introduces lists, quotations, or explanatory elements.
Apostrophe ('): Denotes possession or forms contractions.
Quotation Marks (" "): Enclose direct speech or citations.
Exclamation Mark (!): Conveys strong emotions or emphasizes points.

Run-on Sentences: Occurs when independent clauses are wrongly joined; can be corrected with conjunctions or appropriate punctuation.
Sentence Fragments: Consist of incomplete sentences lacking a subject or verb.
Misplaced Modifiers: Result from descriptive terms positioned far from the words they modify.
Incorrect Verb Form: Arises from using the wrong tense (e.g., present instead of past).

Active Voice: The subject executes the action (e.g., "The chef cooked a meal").
Passive Voice: The subject receives the action (e.g., "A meal was cooked by the chef").
Formal vs. Informal Language: Select language style based on the audience and context.
Conciseness: Emphasizes clear communication by omitting unnecessary words.