English Grammar Fundamentals

• English language studies encompass grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension.
• Each area is crucial for effective communication and understanding.

Grammar

• Grammar includes the system and structure of a language.
• It encompasses the rules of syntax, morphology, and phonology.
• Syntax governs the arrangement of words/phrases in sentences.
• Morphology involves the study of word forms and morphemes.
• Phonology deals with a language's sound system.
• Parts of speech are based on word function in a sentence.
  • Nouns represent people, places, things, or ideas. Examples: book, city, freedom.
  • Pronouns replace nouns. Examples: he, she, it, they.
  • Verbs describe actions or states of being. Examples: run, is, become.
  • Adjectives modify nouns. Examples: red, tall, interesting.
  • Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Examples: quickly, very, well.
  • Prepositions show relationships between nouns/pronouns. Examples: in, on, at, to, from.
  • Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. Examples: and, but, or, because.
  • Interjections express strong emotion. Examples: Wow! Ouch! Help!
• Sentence structure includes clauses with a subject and predicate.
  • Simple Sentences: Contain one independent clause. Example: The dog barked.
  • Compound Sentences: Contain two+ independent clauses linked by conjunction/semicolon. Example: The dog barked, and the cat meowed.
  • Complex Sentences: Contain one independent and one+ dependent clauses. Example: Because it was raining, we stayed inside.
  • Compound-Complex Sentences: Contain two+ independent and one+ dependent clauses. Example: Because it was raining, we stayed inside, and we watched a movie.
• Verb tenses indicate when an action occurs.
  • Present Tense: Describes current actions/states. Example: I eat.
  • Past Tense: Describes past actions. Example: I ate.
  • Future Tense: Describes future actions. Example: I will eat.
  • Perfect Tenses: Indicate completed actions. Examples: I have eaten, I had eaten, I will have eaten.
  • Continuous Tenses: Indicate ongoing actions. Examples: I am eating, I was eating, I will be eating.
• Subject-verb agreement requires verbs to match subjects in number. Example: The dog barks; The dogs bark.
• Pronoun agreement requires pronouns to agree in number/gender with their nouns. Example: The dog wagged its tail; Mary likes her job.
• Common grammatical errors include misplaced modifiers, dangling participles, and incorrect tense usage.
• Punctuation includes commas, periods, semicolons, colons, question marks, exclamation points, apostrophes, quotation marks, parentheses, brackets, and dashes.
• Each punctuation mark clarifies meaning and structures sentences.

Vocabulary

• Vocabulary constitutes the words known/used in a language.
• Vocabulary is essential for communication, comprehension, and expression.
• Word roots, prefixes, and suffixes help decipher word meanings.
  • Roots are core parts carrying primary meaning (e.g., "port" in transport).
  • Prefixes modify word meanings (e.g., "un-" in unhappy).
  • Suffixes change grammatical function/meaning (e.g., "-ness" in happiness).
• Context clues use surrounding text to infer unknown word meanings.
  • Context clue types include definitions, examples, synonyms, and antonyms.
• Synonyms and antonyms expand vocabulary and improve precision.
• Connotation (emotional/cultural meaning) differs from denotation (literal meaning).
• Idioms/figures of speech have non-literal meanings (e.g., "raining cats and dogs").
• Familiarity with idioms enhances comprehension.
• Vocabulary-building strategies:
  • Reading exposes you to new words and reinforces vocabulary.
  • Flashcards help memorize new words.
  • Word games make learning enjoyable.
  • Using new words solidifies understanding.
• Types of vocabulary:
  • Receptive vocabulary is understood when reading/hearing.
  • Productive vocabulary is used correctly when speaking/writing.
• Register is the level of formality in language.
  • Formal vocabulary suits academic settings; informal suits casual conversation.

Reading Comprehension

• Reading comprehension involves understanding written text.
• This includes decoding, understanding meanings, and grasping the message.
• Identifying the main idea and supporting details is crucial.
• Inference involves drawing conclusions from implied information.
• Inference requires background knowledge and reasoning skills.
• Understanding the author's purpose and tone enhances comprehension.
• Recognizing text structure helps readers follow the author's reasoning.
  • Common text structures are chronological order, cause and effect, and compare/contrast.
• Critical reading evaluates the credibility and relevance of information.
• Reading strategies:
  • Skimming provides a general overview.
  • Scanning locates specific information.
  • Close reading analyzes the text in detail.
  • Annotating aids comprehension.
• Text types:
  • Narrative texts tell stories.
  • Expository texts provide information.
  • Persuasive texts attempt to convince.
  • Technical texts explain concepts/provide instructions.
• Common reading challenges:
  • Limited vocabulary impairs comprehension.
  • Difficulty focusing leads to missed information.
  • Lack of background knowledge makes understanding difficult.
• Improving reading comprehension includes practicing active reading strategies.
• Regular reading improves reading comprehension.
• Looking up unfamiliar words and concepts is useful.
• Discussing reading deepens understanding.
• Comprehension skills:
  • Understanding stated information is key.
  • The ability to make inferences and draw conclusions.
  • Identifying the author's purpose matters.
  • Analyzing text structure and organization is needed.
• Note-taking aids memory of key information.
• Summarization condenses main points.