English Grammar Basics

• English is a West Germanic language that originated in England
• It's the leading global language in international communication, business, and the internet

Grammar

• Grammar governs how words are combined to form sentences
• Parts of speech include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections
• Nouns name persons, places, things, or ideas (e.g., cat, London, idea)
• Pronouns replace nouns (e.g., he, she, it, they)
• Verbs express actions or states of being (e.g., run, is, become)
• Adjectives modify nouns (e.g., red, tall, interesting)
• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g., quickly, very, well)
• Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in the sentence (e.g., on, in, at, to, from)
• Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., and, but, or, so)
• Interjections express strong emotion (e.g., Wow! Ouch!)
• Sentence structure includes simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences
• Simple sentences have one independent clause
• Compound sentences have two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction
• Complex sentences have one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
• Compound-complex sentences have two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses
• Subject-verb agreement requires the verb to match the subject in number (singular or plural)
• Tenses indicate the time of an action or state (e.g., present, past, future)
• Active voice is when the subject performs the action
• Passive voice is when the subject receives the action

Vocabulary

• Vocabulary refers to the body of words known to a person or used in a language
• Root words are basic words with no prefixes or suffixes
• Prefixes are added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning (e.g., un-, re-, pre-)
• Suffixes are added to the end of a word to change its meaning or grammatical function (e.g., -ing, -ed, -ly, -ness)
• Synonyms are words with similar meanings (e.g., happy and joyful)
• Antonyms are words with opposite meanings (e.g., hot and cold)
• Homophones are words that sound alike but have different meanings and spellings (e.g., there, their, and they're)
• Context clues are hints found within a sentence or passage that help understand the meaning of unfamiliar words
• Connotation refers to the emotional or cultural associations of a word
• Denotation refers to the literal or dictionary definition of a word

Writing Skills

• Writing skills involve effectively conveying ideas and information through written text
• Prewriting involves brainstorming, outlining, and planning before writing
• Drafting is the process of writing the first version of the text
• Revising involves improving the content, organization, and clarity of the writing
• Editing involves correcting errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and style
• Publishing is the final stage of sharing the written work with an audience
• Clarity involves using precise language and avoiding ambiguity
• Coherence involves ensuring that ideas flow logically and are connected smoothly
• Conciseness involves expressing ideas in as few words as possible
• Audience awareness involves tailoring the writing to the intended readers
• Purpose involves having a clear objective for the writing
• Different types of writing include narrative, expository, persuasive, and descriptive
• Narrative writing tells a story
• Expository writing explains or informs
• Persuasive writing attempts to convince the reader
• Descriptive writing uses vivid language to create a picture in the reader's mind

Reading Comprehension

• Reading comprehension is the ability to understand and interpret written text
• Identifying the main idea involves determining the central point of the passage
• Understanding supporting details involves recognizing the information that supports the main idea
• Making inferences involves drawing conclusions based on information that is not explicitly stated
• Analyzing the author's purpose involves understanding the reason why the author wrote the text
• Evaluating the author's credibility involves assessing the reliability and trustworthiness of the author
• Identifying the tone involves recognizing the author's attitude toward the subject
• Recognizing text structure involves understanding how the information is organized (e.g., cause and effect, compare and contrast, sequence)
• Context clues help determine the meaning of unfamiliar words
• Summarizing involves condensing the main points of a text

Literature

• Literature encompasses written works recognized for their artistic or intellectual value
• Fiction includes novels, short stories, and novellas
• Non-fiction includes essays, biographies, and articles
• Poetry uses rhythm, rhyme, and imagery to evoke emotions
• Drama is written to be performed
• Literary devices are techniques used by writers to enhance their work
• Metaphors compare two unlike things without using "like" or "as"
• Similes compare two unlike things using "like" or "as"
• Personification gives human qualities to inanimate objects or animals
• Imagery uses descriptive language to create vivid mental pictures
• Symbolism uses objects or ideas to represent something else
• Theme is the central idea or message of a literary work
• Plot is the sequence of events in a story
• Character is a person or other being in a narrative
• Setting is the time and place in which a story occurs
• Point of view is the perspective from which a story is told
• Irony is the use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning
• Foreshadowing is a hint or clue about events that will occur later in the story