English Chapter 3: The World Language

The Status of English in the World

• English is a global language, widely used in international communication.
• The language has developed from an Anglo-Saxon dialect spoken in Northern Germany to a language recognized and spoken throughout the world.
• The English language has changed and adapted in different regions, resulting in different forms of the language.

The Historical Development of English

• The English language originated from the language spoken by Anglo-Saxon tribes in Northern Germany.
• The language was brought to Britain by the Anglo-Saxon tribes and developed over time.
• The Vikings, who spoke Old Norse, influenced the language in the eastern areas of England.
• After the Norman Invasion of England in 1066, Norman French became the language of government, and Anglo-Saxon was only spoken by the peasant class.
• English re-emerged as a combination of English and French, and eventually became the dominant language in England.

The Spread of English

• The British Empire played a significant role in the spread of English beyond its national borders.
• English was spread through colonization, trade, and cultural influence.
• Today, English is used in many parts of the world, including Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Kachru's Circles of English

• Braj Kachru's model classifies English usage into three circles: Inner, Outer, and Expanding.
• The Inner Circle includes countries where English is the native language, such as the UK, US, Australia, and New Zealand.
• The Outer Circle includes countries where English is a second language, such as India, Nigeria, and Singapore.
• The Expanding Circle includes countries where English is used as a foreign language, such as China, Russia, and Japan.

Language Norms and Standards

• The Inner Circle is considered norm-providing, meaning that English language norms are developed in these countries and spread outwards.
• The Outer Circle is norm-developing, adopting and developing its own norms.
• The Expanding Circle is norm-dependent, relying on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle.
• Standard English is often considered the norm, and non-standard English is any variety that is not standard English.

Attitudes to Non-Standard English

• Historically, non-standard English dialects were considered inferior and "quaint and eccentric".
• However, attitudes have changed in recent years, and regional dialects are now recognized and valued.
• Received Pronunciation (RP) is considered the prestige accent, associated with high status and neutral geography.

The Future of English

• The status of English as a global language may change in the future, as economic and political power shifts to non-English speaking countries.

• The number of people learning English is predicted to increase, but may eventually decline as other languages become more prominent.

• The Spread of English may lead to diverse forms of English emerging, with different norms and standards.### English Accents and Varieties

• English accents will continue to change and develop due to the growing numbers of non-native English speakers.

• Varieties of English have evolved globally, with the same words being pronounced differently, and different words being used for the same object, with varying syntax.

• Examples of varieties of English include 'Japlish', 'Russlish', 'Spanglish', and 'Deutschlish', which are formed by merging standard English with local languages.

Creolisation

• Creolisation is the process of forming a new language by merging two or more languages, resulting in a distinctive variety with native speakers.
• This process is not limited to the Caribbean and occurs worldwide.

South African English

• South African English (SAE) is a dialect of English spoken by South Africans, with distinct varieties spoken by Zimbabweans, Zambians, and Namibians.
• SAE emerged from the introduction of English by British settlers in 1795 and was influenced by Afrikaans, Dutch, and African languages.
• Afrikaans, a language that emerged from Dutch, coexisted with English throughout the 20th century, with a power struggle leading to the Boer War of 1899-1901.
• English remained a major influence in business and higher education, and was used by the African National Congress (ANC) and other liberation movements for communication.
• The 1976 Soweto uprising was sparked by the attempt to make Afrikaans a teaching language in schools.

Characteristics of South African English

• SAE has adopted words from Dutch, Afrikaans, and African languages, such as 'donga', 'impala', 'kraal', 'braai', 'lekker', and 'rooibos'.
• Afrikaans has had a significant influence on SAE's lexis and syntax, including the use of 'ja' (yes).
• Words were also borrowed from Malay, such as 'atchar', 'bobotie', and 'sosatie'.
• Different varieties of SAE exist, reflecting social status.

New Englishes and Linguistic Fragmentation

• New Englishes, also known as New Varieties of English (NVEs), have emerged in countries with historical colonial influence, such as Pakistan, India, and Nigeria.
• These varieties have developed their own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.
• English has consolidated its position as a global language, but raises questions about its future, with some arguing it may split into mutually incomprehensible languages.

The Emergence of American English

• American English emerged from the English language brought by the Puritans, who settled in New England in 1620 AD.
• The language adapted and changed, incorporating words from Native American languages, such as 'raccoon', 'squash', and 'moose'.
• American English also adopted words from European settlers, such as 'coleslaw', 'cookies', 'pretzels', and 'pizzas'.

The Status of English in the World

• English is a global language, widely used in international communication.
• The language has developed from an Anglo-Saxon dialect spoken in Northern Germany to a language recognized and spoken throughout the world.
• The English language has changed and adapted in different regions, resulting in different forms of the language.

The Historical Development of English

• The English language originated from the language spoken by Anglo-Saxon tribes in Northern Germany.
• The language was brought to Britain by the Anglo-Saxon tribes and developed over time.
• The Vikings, who spoke Old Norse, influenced the language in the eastern areas of England.
• After the Norman Invasion of England in 1066, Norman French became the language of government, and Anglo-Saxon was only spoken by the peasant class.
• English re-emerged as a combination of English and French, and eventually became the dominant language in England.

The Spread of English

• The British Empire played a significant role in the spread of English beyond its national borders.
• English was spread through colonization, trade, and cultural influence.
• Today, English is used in many parts of the world, including Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Kachru's Circles of English

• Braj Kachru's model classifies English usage into three circles: Inner, Outer, and Expanding.
• The Inner Circle includes countries where English is the native language, such as the UK, US, Australia, and New Zealand.
• The Outer Circle includes countries where English is a second language, such as India, Nigeria, and Singapore.
• The Expanding Circle includes countries where English is used as a foreign language, such as China, Russia, and Japan.

Language Norms and Standards

• The Inner Circle is considered norm-providing, meaning that English language norms are developed in these countries and spread outwards.
• The Outer Circle is norm-developing, adopting and developing its own norms.
• The Expanding Circle is norm-dependent, relying on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle.
• Standard English is often considered the norm, and non-standard English is any variety that is not standard English.

Attitudes to Non-Standard English

• Historically, non-standard English dialects were considered inferior and "quaint and eccentric".
• However, attitudes have changed in recent years, and regional dialects are now recognized and valued.
• Received Pronunciation (RP) is considered the prestige accent, associated with high status and neutral geography.

The Future of English

• The status of English as a global language may change in the future, as economic and political power shifts to non-English speaking countries.

• The number of people learning English is predicted to increase, but may eventually decline as other languages become more prominent.

• The Spread of English may lead to diverse forms of English emerging, with different norms and standards.### English Accents and Varieties

• English accents will continue to change and develop due to the growing numbers of non-native English speakers.

• Varieties of English have evolved globally, with the same words being pronounced differently, and different words being used for the same object, with varying syntax.

• Examples of varieties of English include 'Japlish', 'Russlish', 'Spanglish', and 'Deutschlish', which are formed by merging standard English with local languages.

Creolisation

• Creolisation is the process of forming a new language by merging two or more languages, resulting in a distinctive variety with native speakers.
• This process is not limited to the Caribbean and occurs worldwide.

South African English

• South African English (SAE) is a dialect of English spoken by South Africans, with distinct varieties spoken by Zimbabweans, Zambians, and Namibians.
• SAE emerged from the introduction of English by British settlers in 1795 and was influenced by Afrikaans, Dutch, and African languages.
• Afrikaans, a language that emerged from Dutch, coexisted with English throughout the 20th century, with a power struggle leading to the Boer War of 1899-1901.
• English remained a major influence in business and higher education, and was used by the African National Congress (ANC) and other liberation movements for communication.
• The 1976 Soweto uprising was sparked by the attempt to make Afrikaans a teaching language in schools.

Characteristics of South African English

• SAE has adopted words from Dutch, Afrikaans, and African languages, such as 'donga', 'impala', 'kraal', 'braai', 'lekker', and 'rooibos'.
• Afrikaans has had a significant influence on SAE's lexis and syntax, including the use of 'ja' (yes).
• Words were also borrowed from Malay, such as 'atchar', 'bobotie', and 'sosatie'.
• Different varieties of SAE exist, reflecting social status.

New Englishes and Linguistic Fragmentation

• New Englishes, also known as New Varieties of English (NVEs), have emerged in countries with historical colonial influence, such as Pakistan, India, and Nigeria.
• These varieties have developed their own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.
• English has consolidated its position as a global language, but raises questions about its future, with some arguing it may split into mutually incomprehensible languages.

The Emergence of American English

• American English emerged from the English language brought by the Puritans, who settled in New England in 1620 AD.
• The language adapted and changed, incorporating words from Native American languages, such as 'raccoon', 'squash', and 'moose'.
• American English also adopted words from European settlers, such as 'coleslaw', 'cookies', 'pretzels', and 'pizzas'.

American English

• After gaining independence from Britain, American English developed its own words to meet the needs of large-scale capitalism.
• American English became a global standard means of communication, influencing other languages, especially with the rise of the US as a superpower.
• American English has distinct pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar differences from British English.

British English vs. American English

• Research by the British Library found that British English is evolving faster than American English, and British speakers are refusing to adopt American pronunciations for everyday words.
• American English is becoming more conservative and traditional in its speech patterns.

Language Imperialism

• Language imperialism refers to the dominance of one language over others, often at the expense of local languages and cultures.
• English, in particular, has been accused of being a "killer language" contributing to the decline and death of minority languages.
• The spread of English has led to the decline of indigenous languages, particularly in colonized countries.

Language Decline and Death

• A language dies when the last speaker of that language dies.
• Language death can be sudden and violent, as seen in the case of Aboriginal Australian languages, or more gradual, as speakers shift to a more dominant language.
• UNESCO distinguishes five levels of language endangerment: vulnerable, definitely endangered, severely endangered, critically endangered, and extinct.

Language Preservation and Revitalization

• Efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize endangered languages, such as Scottish Gaelic, through language education and media programs.
• Language shift can occur when a minority language is seen as less important than a more dominant language, leading to language death.

English as a Global Language

• English is spoken across the world as a native and second language, with many forms and variations.
• English is often seen as a key to economic and social advancement, leading to the decline of minority languages.
• However, there are concerns about the impact of English language teaching on local languages and cultures.

Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

• TESOL programs should be culturally sensitive and take into account local contexts and languages.
• Criticisms of language imperialism can apply to TESOL if it prioritizes English over local languages.
• Programs should aim for authenticity of language style and include regional varieties of English.### Language and Power
• A movement in the US seeks to establish American English as a unifying language for the nation.

Historical Context of Language

• 1000 years ago, Latin was the unifying language that later fragmented into languages like French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian.

English as a Global Language

• The future status of English as a global language is uncertain.
• Factors that drove English as a global language include:
  • The British Empire
  • The Industrial Revolution
  • American dominance in commerce, trade, and media
• The changing economic status of non-native English-speaking countries may impact English's global status.

Evolution of the English Language

• English, as it is currently spoken and written, must continue to adapt to changes.
• Concerns exist about the nature of these changes and their impact on the language's status.

Language Decline or Endangerment

• A language dies when the people who speak it die out.
• Language death can be sudden and violent, or gradual, as speakers drift into using another dominant language.
• Around half of the languages spoken in the world today are not being taught to children.
• Since 1500, the world has lost around 15% of the 7000 languages that were spoken then.
• UNESCO distinguishes five levels of language endangerment: vulnerable, definitely endangered, severely endangered, critically endangered, and extinct.

Language Death and Culture

• When a language dies, a whole culture and its songs, stories, legends, and sayings die with it.
• The loss of a language is essentially the loss of an enormous cultural heritage.
• Language is a fundamental part of the life of a people, including their way of expressing relations with nature, the world, and each other.

Scottish Gaelic

• Scottish Gaelic is a Celtic language that was the predominant language in Scotland.
• It is spoken only in remote areas of the northern and western Highlands, with around 20,000-30,000 native speakers worldwide.
• The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act of 2005 gave official recognition to the language, but it is not an official language within the United Kingdom.
• There has been a huge resurgence of interest in the language, with a school teaching solely in Gaelic opening in Glasgow, and an increase in BBC Gaelic language broadcasting services.

Language Shift

• Language death is more likely to occur when the language of one group is seen as less important than a more dominant language spoken in the same region.
• Language shift can happen over the course of only a few generations, leading eventually to language death.
• The use of the minority language in the community is reduced until it may only be spoken in the home and by older generations.

English as an Imperialist Language

• A national language must be recognised as a ‘real’ language, have a high status, and facilitate its speakers in their daily lives.
• English is spoken across the world, both as a native language and as a second language.
• Is English a chief cause of the death of minority languages?
• Examples of English as an imperialist language include Papua New Guinea, where colonisation by Britain and later Australia led to the development of a creole language.

Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

• TESOL has been an important medium of transmitting English.
• Criticisms of language imperialism can apply if there is not a sensitivity towards the native language of the learners and if there appears to be a pressure in education that English learning is the only way to guarantee personal success.
• Programmes should aim for authenticity of language style, and take account of national concerns.
• Standard Anglocentric textbooks should be replaced by those that are more culturally sensitive.

Is English under Threat?

• English itself may be under threat, as different forms of English are evolving all the time.
• In the USA, for example, large numbers of Hispanic immigrants continue to speak their native Spanish.
• The future status of English as a world language is unknown, but language use is associated with power and the view that it is beneficial to speak it.

Language Decline or Endangerment

• A language dies when the people who speak it die out.
• Language death can be sudden and violent, or gradual, as speakers drift into using another dominant language.
• Around half of the languages spoken in the world today are not being taught to children.
• Since 1500, the world has lost around 15% of the 7000 languages that were spoken then.
• UNESCO distinguishes five levels of language endangerment: vulnerable, definitely endangered, severely endangered, critically endangered, and extinct.

Language Death and Culture

• When a language dies, a whole culture and its songs, stories, legends, and sayings die with it.
• The loss of a language is essentially the loss of an enormous cultural heritage.
• Language is a fundamental part of the life of a people, including their way of expressing relations with nature, the world, and each other.

Scottish Gaelic

• Scottish Gaelic is a Celtic language that was the predominant language in Scotland.
• It is spoken only in remote areas of the northern and western Highlands, with around 20,000-30,000 native speakers worldwide.
• The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act of 2005 gave official recognition to the language, but it is not an official language within the United Kingdom.
• There has been a huge resurgence of interest in the language, with a school teaching solely in Gaelic opening in Glasgow, and an increase in BBC Gaelic language broadcasting services.

Language Shift

• Language death is more likely to occur when the language of one group is seen as less important than a more dominant language spoken in the same region.
• Language shift can happen over the course of only a few generations, leading eventually to language death.
• The use of the minority language in the community is reduced until it may only be spoken in the home and by older generations.

English as an Imperialist Language

• A national language must be recognised as a ‘real’ language, have a high status, and facilitate its speakers in their daily lives.
• English is spoken across the world, both as a native language and as a second language.
• Is English a chief cause of the death of minority languages?
• Examples of English as an imperialist language include Papua New Guinea, where colonisation by Britain and later Australia led to the development of a creole language.

Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

• TESOL has been an important medium of transmitting English.
• Criticisms of language imperialism can apply if there is not a sensitivity towards the native language of the learners and if there appears to be a pressure in education that English learning is the only way to guarantee personal success.
• Programmes should aim for authenticity of language style, and take account of national concerns.
• Standard Anglocentric textbooks should be replaced by those that are more culturally sensitive.

Is English under Threat?

• English itself may be under threat, as different forms of English are evolving all the time.
• In the USA, for example, large numbers of Hispanic immigrants continue to speak their native Spanish.
• The future status of English as a world language is unknown, but language use is associated with power and the view that it is beneficial to speak it.