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Questions and Answers
What is the primary cause of endogenic processes?
What is the primary cause of endogenic processes?
What type of fault occurs when the upper block moves downward relative to the lower block?
What type of fault occurs when the upper block moves downward relative to the lower block?
Which agent is NOT primarily responsible for metamorphism?
Which agent is NOT primarily responsible for metamorphism?
Which process involves the eruption of molten rock onto a planet's surface?
Which process involves the eruption of molten rock onto a planet's surface?
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Which of the following is a type of stress that causes material to twist?
Which of the following is a type of stress that causes material to twist?
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What is the geological term for a crack in the Earth's crust resulting from displacement?
What is the geological term for a crack in the Earth's crust resulting from displacement?
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Which term describes the mineralogical adjustments of solid rocks due to physical and chemical conditions?
Which term describes the mineralogical adjustments of solid rocks due to physical and chemical conditions?
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What type of stress is characterized by a decrease in the volume of a material?
What type of stress is characterized by a decrease in the volume of a material?
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What occurs when two continental plates collide at a convergent boundary?
What occurs when two continental plates collide at a convergent boundary?
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Which of the following describes the process at an oceanic-continental convergent boundary?
Which of the following describes the process at an oceanic-continental convergent boundary?
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What is the result of an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary?
What is the result of an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary?
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Seafloor spreading is primarily associated with which type of boundary?
Seafloor spreading is primarily associated with which type of boundary?
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What do subduction zones specifically indicate about the tectonic plates involved?
What do subduction zones specifically indicate about the tectonic plates involved?
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What is the primary mechanism responsible for the shifting of tectonic plates?
What is the primary mechanism responsible for the shifting of tectonic plates?
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Which hypothesis suggests that the continents have been static and new material has gradually been added?
Which hypothesis suggests that the continents have been static and new material has gradually been added?
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Which two supercontinents did Pangaea break into during the Jurassic period?
Which two supercontinents did Pangaea break into during the Jurassic period?
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Which evidence of continental drift relates to the observation of similar coastlines between continents?
Which evidence of continental drift relates to the observation of similar coastlines between continents?
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What term refers to the denser elements that accumulated in ocean areas and later formed basins?
What term refers to the denser elements that accumulated in ocean areas and later formed basins?
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What name did Alfred Wegener give to the supercontinent that existed around 275 to 175 million years ago?
What name did Alfred Wegener give to the supercontinent that existed around 275 to 175 million years ago?
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Which Greek term means 'All water' and is associated with the ocean surrounding Pangaea?
Which Greek term means 'All water' and is associated with the ocean surrounding Pangaea?
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Which phenomenon involves the gradual movement of continents over geological time?
Which phenomenon involves the gradual movement of continents over geological time?
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Which of the following correctly describes the connection between the Appalachian Mountains and the Caledonian Mountains?
Which of the following correctly describes the connection between the Appalachian Mountains and the Caledonian Mountains?
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What major criticism did Wegener face regarding his theory of continental drift?
What major criticism did Wegener face regarding his theory of continental drift?
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What is the primary significance of plate tectonics in the field of earth sciences?
What is the primary significance of plate tectonics in the field of earth sciences?
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Which of the following statements accurately describes divergent plate boundaries?
Which of the following statements accurately describes divergent plate boundaries?
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Which of the following minor plates is recognized as one of the largest?
Which of the following minor plates is recognized as one of the largest?
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What was one of Wegener's explanations for fossil similarities across continents?
What was one of Wegener's explanations for fossil similarities across continents?
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Which type of plate boundary is characterized by significant changes in velocity of motion between adjacent plates?
Which type of plate boundary is characterized by significant changes in velocity of motion between adjacent plates?
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During which era did ice sheets extensively cover areas in the Southern Hemisphere?
During which era did ice sheets extensively cover areas in the Southern Hemisphere?
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Study Notes
Endogenic Processes
- Endogenic processes are geological events that occur inside the Earth.
- They are driven by the internal heat of the Earth, caused by the radioactive decay of elements deep within its core.
- This heat rises and drives the tectonic forces that shape the Earth's surface.
Magmatism
- Magma is extremely hot liquid and semi-liquid rock found beneath the Earth's surface.
- Magmatism is the process of magma generation and its transformation into igneous rock.
- It plays a vital role in mountain formation.
Volcanism (Plutonism)
- Volcanism refers to the eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the Earth's surface.
- Magma that reaches the surface is called lava.
- Volcanoes are named after Vulcan, the Roman god of fire.
Metamorphism
- Metamorphism is the process where existing rocks change in composition and texture due to changes in temperature, pressure, and fluids.
- This process alters the rock's mineral content and structure.
Deformation
- Deformation refers to changes in the shape or size of rocks due to stress.
Types of Stress
- Compression squeezes rocks, decreasing their volume.
- Tension stretches rocks, pulling them apart.
- Shear causes rocks to twist or slide past each other.
Faulting
- Faulting occurs when rocks fracture and shift due to stress.
- Normal Faults occur when the hanging wall (block above the fault) moves down relative to the footwall (block below).
- Reverse Faults occur when the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall.
- Strike-Slip Faults occur when blocks slide horizontally past each other.
Plate Motion
- Plate motion is the movement of large, rigid slabs of the Earth's crust (tectonic plates) on the partially molten upper mantle.
- Plate motion influences mountain formation, continental drift, and ocean formation.
Early Theories and Hypotheses
- Continent Accretion Theory suggested that continents grew steadily by adding new material.
- Continent Assimilation Hypothesis proposed that denser elements sank to create ocean basins.
- Expanding Earth Hypothesis suggested that continents split due to Earth's expansion.
Modern Theory
- Continental Drift Theory explains the gradual movement of continents over time.
- Alfred Wegener proposed the theory in 1912, suggesting that all continents were once part of a supercontinent called Pangaea.
Evidence for Continental Drift
- Continental Jigsaw Puzzle: Matching coastlines of continents suggest they were once connected.
- Fossil Correlation: Similar fossils found on different continents support the idea of earlier land connections.
- Rock and Mountain Correlation: Continuous rock types and mountain ranges across continents support their past connection.
- Paleoclimatic Data: Ancient climate data like glacial deposits indicate past continental positions.
Rejecting the Continental Drift Theory
- Initial lack of a mechanism to explain plate motion led to skepticism.
- Wegener's focus on land bridges for migration was not well-accepted.
- His status as a meteorologist made it harder for geologists to take him seriously.
- His initial estimates of plate speed were inaccurate.
Plates of the World
- There are seven major plates: Pacific, African, North American, Indo-Australian, South American, Eurasian, and Antarctic.
- Additionally, there are numerous smaller plates like the Juan de Fuca, Arabian, Caribbean, Cocos, Nazca, Philippine, and Scotia plates.
Plate Tectonics
- The theory of plate tectonics explains the mechanisms behind the formation of major landforms by the movements of tectonic plates.
- The theory revolutionized Earth sciences by explaining mountain building, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
Plate Boundaries
- Plate boundaries are zones where tectonic plates interact.
- They are classified into three types:
Types of Plate Boundaries
- Divergent Boundaries occur where plates move apart (also called constructive margins), leading to the creation of new seafloor.
- Convergent Boundaries occur where plates collide (also called destructive margins), resulting in subduction and mountain formation.
- Transform Boundaries occur where plates slide horizontally past each other.
Seafloor Spreading
- Seafloor spreading is the process of creating new oceanic crust at divergent plate boundaries.
- It occurs due to mantle convection, the slow circulation of the Earth's mantle.
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Description
Explore the fascinating world of endogenic processes, including magmatism, volcanism, and metamorphism. Understand how these geological events shape the Earth's surface through tectonic forces and transformations of rock. Test your knowledge on the dynamic processes that drive our planet's geology.
