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Endocrine Glands and Hormones

Endocrine Glands and Hormones

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Questions and Answers

What are hormones, where do they originate from, and how do they travel?

Hormones are chemical substances released by an endocrine gland that affect another endocrine gland or organ. They travel through the bloodstream.

What defines target cells in the context of hormones?

Target cells possess specific receptors for a particular hormone.

List the 6 major endocrine glands.

Hypothalamus, 2) Pituitary gland, 3) Thyroid gland, 4) Parathyroid gland, 5) Adrenal gland, 6) Pancreas.

Where is the pituitary gland located, and what types of hormones does it release?

<p>The pituitary gland is located below and connected to the hypothalamus. It releases many regulatory hormones, including ACTH, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and growth hormone (GH).</p>

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Describe the location and function of the parathyroid glands.

<p>There are four parathyroid glands located on the posterior side of the thyroid gland. They release parathyroid hormone (PTH), which targets bones (specifically osteoclasts) to increase blood calcium levels.</p>

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Where are the adrenal glands located, what condition are they associated with, and what hormone do they release to increase blood pressure?

<p>An adrenal gland sits on top of each kidney. They are associated with the stress response and release aldosterone to increase blood pressure.</p>

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What does aldosterone do, which gland releases it, and what organ does it primarily target?

<p>Aldosterone increases blood pressure. It is released by the adrenal gland and targets the kidneys, causing them to reabsorb sodium.</p>

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Where is the pancreas located, and what two key hormones does it release related to blood glucose regulation?

<p>The pancreas sits underneath the stomach. It releases insulin and glucagon.</p>

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Describe the location and function of the hypothalamus.

<p>The hypothalamus is located at the bottom of the diencephalon. It acts as the master control gland, linking the nervous system with the endocrine system, and is composed of neural tissue.</p>

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What is ACTH, which gland releases it, and what does it target?

<p>ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) comes from the pituitary gland. It targets the adrenal glands, causing the release of corticoids (like cortisol).</p>

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Where is the thyroid gland located, and what hormones does it release?

<p>The thyroid gland surrounds the larynx (voice box). It releases T3 (triiodothyronine), T4 (thyroxine), and calcitonin.</p>

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What are T3 and T4 hormones, what is their primary function, and which gland releases them?

<p>T3 and T4 are hormones released by the thyroid gland. They target all cells in the body to increase metabolism.</p>

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What is calcitonin, which gland releases it, and what does it target?

<p>Calcitonin is a hormone released by the thyroid gland. It targets bone, specifically osteoblasts, to help lower blood calcium levels (often by inhibiting osteoclasts and stimulating calcium uptake by bone).</p>

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Describe the response to short-term stress.

<p>Short-term stress involves a rapid mobilization of energy to achieve an important goal. The adrenal gland releases epinephrine and norepinephrine.</p>

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Describe some effects and associated hormones of long-term stress.

<p>Long-term stress can lead to reduced immunity and high blood pressure. It involves the release of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids from the adrenal glands.</p>

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What hormone does the heart produce to help regulate blood pressure, and what organ does it target?

<p>The heart produces Atrial Natriuretic Hormone (ANH). It targets the kidneys, instructing them to secrete more sodium, which helps lower blood pressure.</p>

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Which gland releases insulin, and what are its target cells and effect?

<p>Insulin is released by the pancreas. It targets all cells and causes a decrease in blood glucose levels.</p>

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Which gland releases glucagon, and what is its target organ and effect?

<p>Glucagon is released by the pancreas. It targets the liver and causes an increase in blood glucose levels.</p>

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What is diabetes mellitus?

<p>Diabetes mellitus is a chronic, long-term condition characterized by abnormally high levels of blood glucose.</p>

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What characterizes Type 1 diabetes?

<p>Type 1 diabetes is characterized by the body not producing enough insulin or producing defective insulin. It often has a genetic component.</p>

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What characterizes Type 2 diabetes?

<p>Type 2 diabetes occurs when the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin (insulin resistance), often coupled with insufficient insulin production over time. The definition states 'cells not producing enough receptors for insulin'.</p>

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What gland produces melatonin, and what is its function?

<p>The pineal gland produces melatonin, which helps regulate the 24-hour sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm).</p>

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What hormone does adipose tissue produce, and what is its function?

<p>Adipose tissue produces leptin, which helps regulate the hunger drive.</p>

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What substance released by damaged tissues is associated with the pain response?

<p>Damaged tissues release prostaglandins, which contribute to the pain response.</p>

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What are gonads, and what general category of hormone do they release?

<p>Gonads are the primary reproductive organs (testes in males, ovaries in females). They release sex hormones.</p>

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What are sensory receptors?

<p>Sensory receptors are structures that detect stimuli (information) from the internal or external environment.</p>

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What do chemoreceptors monitor?

<p>Chemoreceptors monitor the levels of chemicals, such as calcium, oxygen (O2), pH, etc.</p>

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What type of stimulus do photoreceptors detect?

<p>Photoreceptors detect light.</p>

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What kinds of stimuli do mechanoreceptors detect?

<p>Mechanoreceptors detect physical stimuli such as touch, pressure, stretching, and vibration.</p>

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What do thermoreceptors monitor?

<p>Thermoreceptors monitor temperature.</p>

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Define sensation.

<p>Sensation is the conscious awareness of a stimulus.</p>

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Define sensory adaptation.

<p>Sensory adaptation is the process by which sensitivity to a constant stimulus lessens over time.</p>

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What are somatic senses, and where are their receptors generally located?

<p>Somatic senses are those whose receptors are scattered throughout the body, including in the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera (internal organs).</p>

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What are special senses, where are their receptors located, and what are they?

<p>Special senses have receptors concentrated in specific locations or organs. They include taste, smell, vision, hearing, and equilibrium.</p>

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What type of receptor underlies the senses of both taste and smell?

<p>Both taste and smell rely on chemoreceptors.</p>

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List the basic types of tastes.

<p>The basic tastes include sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami (savory - though not listed in the definition, it's widely accepted). The provided definition lists sweet, sour, bitter, and salty.</p>

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Which special sense is strongly connected to long-term memory, and where in the brain is it processed?

<p>Smell is strongly connected to long-term memory. It is processed in or closely linked to the hippocampus.</p>

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Trace the path of light through the eye to the retina.

<ol> <li>Cornea, 2) Aqueous humor, 3) Iris and Pupil (light passes through the pupil, diameter controlled by iris), 4) Lens, 5) Vitreous humor, 6) Retina.</li> </ol>

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What is the blind spot of the eye?

<p>The blind spot is the area on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye; it has the lowest concentration (or absence) of photoreceptors.</p>

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What is the fovea centralis, and where is it located?

<p>The fovea centralis is the area of the retina responsible for the highest visual acuity (sharpest focus). It is located in the retina.</p>

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What is the function of rods in the retina, and where is their greatest concentration according to the provided text?

<p>Rods help us see in low light conditions. Their greatest concentration is on the sides (periphery) of the retina.</p>

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What is the function of cones in the retina, and where is their greatest concentration according to the provided text?

<p>Cones help us see in color. Their greatest concentration is stated as being on the sides of the retina.</p>

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What type of sensory receptor are rods and cones?

<p>Rods and cones are photoreceptors.</p>

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In the context of vision, what does 'focus' mean?

<p>Focus is the process of adjusting incoming light so that it converges precisely on the retina to create the sharpest possible image.</p>

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Describe the state of the eye when focusing on a distant object.

<p>When focusing on a distant object: the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the tension in the suspensory ligaments increases (they stretch), causing the lens to flatten. The pupil diameter is also generally larger, though this is more related to light level.</p>

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Describe the state of the eye when focusing on a near object.

<p>When focusing on a near object: the ciliary muscles contract, which relaxes the tension in the suspensory ligaments, allowing the lens to become thicker (more convex).</p>

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List the structures of the outer ear.

<p>The outer ear consists of the pinna (auricle) and the auditory canal (external acoustic meatus).</p>

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What structure forms the dividing line between the outer ear and the middle ear?

<p>The tympanic membrane (eardrum) is the dividing line between the outer and middle ear.</p>

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List the main structures of the middle ear.

<p>The middle ear contains the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes - the tiny auditory bones) and the auditory tube (Eustachian tube).</p>

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What structures form the dividing lines between the middle ear and the inner ear?

<p>The oval window and the round window separate the middle ear from the inner ear.</p>

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List the main structures of the inner ear.

<p>The inner ear consists of the three semicircular canals, the vestibule, and the cochlea.</p>

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How do sound waves typically move?

<p>Sound waves involve back-and-forth vibrations or oscillations of particles in a medium (like air).</p>

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What is the main organ for hearing within the cochlea?

<p>The spiral organ (Organ of Corti) is the main organ for hearing.</p>

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What type of receptors are the hair cells of the spiral organ?

<p>The hair cells of the spiral organ are mechanoreceptors.</p>

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What are stereocilia in the context of the inner ear?

<p>Stereocilia are the microvilli (hair-like projections) extending from the top surface of the auditory hair cells.</p>

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What is the tectorial membrane?

<p>The tectorial membrane is a gelatinous structure that lies over the auditory hair cells within the spiral organ.</p>

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What shared function do the semicircular canals and vestibule have?

<p>Both the semicircular canals and the vestibule are involved in maintaining equilibrium (balance) by keeping track of head position and movement in space.</p>

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What type of head movement do the semicircular canals primarily register?

<p>The semicircular canals register rotational or angular acceleration of the head, detected by the movement of fluid within the three canals.</p>

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What types of movement does the vestibule primarily register?

<p>The vestibule registers linear acceleration and deceleration (changes in speed) as well as static head position (gravity). The oval window connects to it.</p>

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What are the two main parts of the central nervous system (CNS)?

<p>The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.</p>

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What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?

<p>The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory nerves and motor nerves.</p>

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What is the function of sensory nerves?

<p>Sensory nerves bring information from sensory receptors into the central nervous system.</p>

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What is the function of motor nerves, and what are their two major subdivisions?

<p>Motor nerves carry commands out of the central nervous system to muscles and glands. They are divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.</p>

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What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

<p>The autonomic nervous system is divided into the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.</p>

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What is the function of sensory neurons?

<p>Sensory neurons bring information (sensory input) from receptors towards the CNS.</p>

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What is the function of motor neurons?

<p>Motor neurons carry commands (motor output) from the CNS to effectors like muscles or glands.</p>

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What are interneurons, where are they found, and what is their role?

<p>Interneurons are located within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). They connect other neurons and process information received from sensory receptors before potentially relaying commands to motor neurons.</p>

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What visible characteristic does myelination impart to nervous tissue?

<p>Myelination results in a white coloration of nervous tissue.</p>

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What is the primary function of myelin sheaths?

<p>Myelin sheaths increase the speed at which nerve signals (action potentials) travel along an axon.</p>

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What is the structural difference between white matter and gray matter in the CNS based on myelination?

<p>White matter contains myelinated axons (it has myelin sheaths), while gray matter contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, and synapses (it does not have significant myelination).</p>

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What is the resting potential of a neuron?

<p>Resting potential is the electrical charge difference across the neuron's membrane when it is at rest (not sending a signal). Neurons are polarized at rest because the outside of the membrane is typically more positive relative to the inside.</p>

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What is an action potential, and why is it often called depolarization?

<p>An action potential is the rapid change in electrical potential across a neuron's membrane that occurs when it sends a signal. It's often called depolarization because the initial phase involves the inside of the membrane becoming less negative (more positive) compared to the outside.</p>

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What does 'signal transmission' refer to in the nervous system?

<p>Signal transmission refers to the process of passing a nerve signal (typically an action potential or neurotransmitter release) from one neuron to the next across a synapse.</p>

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What is a synapse?

<p>A synapse is the junction point between two neurons, or between a neuron and an effector cell (like a muscle or gland cell), where signals are transmitted.</p>

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What is the synaptic cleft?

<p>The synaptic cleft is the small physical space between the presynaptic neuron (sending signal) and the postsynaptic neuron (receiving signal) at a chemical synapse.</p>

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What are neurotransmitters, and what are their two general types of effects?

<p>Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that cross the synaptic cleft to continue or modulate the signal between neurons. They can be either excitatory (promoting firing of the next neuron) or inhibitory (reducing the likelihood of firing).</p>

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What is synaptic integration, and what does it allow neurons to control?

<p>Synaptic integration is the process by which a postsynaptic neuron sums up all the excitatory and inhibitory signals it receives from multiple presynaptic neurons. The net effect determines whether the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential. This controls complex behaviors.</p>

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What are the functional roles of dorsal nerves, ventral nerves, and nerve tracts within the spinal cord context?

<p>Dorsal nerves primarily carry sensory information into the spinal cord. Ventral nerves primarily contain motor neurons carrying commands out from the spinal cord. Nerve tracts consist of bundles of axons running up and down the spinal cord, connecting it with the brain.</p>

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What is the function of the dorsal nerves associated with the spinal cord?

<p>Dorsal nerves (and their roots) carry sensory information from the body towards the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain).</p>

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What type of neurons do the ventral nerves associated with the spinal cord primarily contain, and what is their function?

<p>Ventral nerves (and their roots) primarily contain motor neurons that carry commands from the central nervous system (originating in the brain or spinal cord) out to muscles and glands.</p>

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What are nerve tracts within the spinal cord?

<p>Nerve tracts are bundles of myelinated axons within the white matter of the spinal cord that run longitudinally, carrying signals to (ascending tracts) and from (descending tracts) the brain.</p>

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What is the cerebrum, and what are its main functions?

<p>The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Its main functions include higher-level processes like thinking, learning, memory, and conscious sensory interpretation (somatosensory integration).</p>

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What/where is the diencephalon, and what is its primary function?

<p>The diencephalon is a central mass located deep within the cerebrum, largely surrounded by it. Its primary function is homeostatic control (regulating internal body stability).</p>

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What essential functions are controlled by the brain stem?

<p>The brain stem houses centers that control vital autonomic functions, particularly the cardiac (heart rate) and respiratory (breathing) control centers.</p>

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What are the main functions of the cerebellum, and what substance is it particularly susceptible to?

<p>The cerebellum is primarily involved in coordinating voluntary movements, posture, balance, coordination, and motor learning. It is known to be particularly susceptible to the effects of alcohol.</p>

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Where is the corpus callosum located, and what is its function?

<p>The corpus callosum is a large bundle of nerve fibers located above the diencephalon, deep within the longitudinal fissure. Its function is to connect the two cerebral hemispheres, allowing communication between them.</p>

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What are ventricles in the brain, and what do they contain?

<p>Ventricles are interconnected cavities (spaces) within the brain that produce and contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).</p>

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What is the cerebral cortex, and what type of nervous tissue primarily composes it?

<p>The cerebral cortex is the outer, highly folded (convoluted) thin layer of the cerebrum. It is primarily composed of gray matter (neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, synapses).</p>

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What functions are associated with the prefrontal cortex?

<p>The prefrontal cortex is associated with higher cognitive functions such as thinking, planning, decision-making, concentration, working memory, personality expression, and understanding the consequences of actions.</p>

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What sense is primarily registered in the parietal lobe?

<p>The parietal lobe primarily registers the sense of touch (somatosensation), including pressure, temperature, and pain.</p>

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What type of commands originate from the frontal lobe?

<p>The frontal lobe, particularly the motor cortex within it, originates motor commands for voluntary movement.</p>

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What sense is primarily processed in the occipital lobe?

<p>The occipital lobe is primarily responsible for processing visual information.</p>

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What sense is primarily registered in the temporal lobe?

<p>The temporal lobe primarily registers hearing (auditory information).</p>

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What senses are registered in the insula?

<p>The insula registers the senses of taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction).</p>

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What is the function of Wernicke's area?

<p>Wernicke's area is primarily involved in understanding written and spoken language (language comprehension).</p>

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What is the function of Broca's area?

<p>Broca's area is involved in speech production – organizing the motor commands required for speaking.</p>

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What are basal nuclei (ganglia), what is their main role, and what neurological disease is associated with their dysfunction?

<p>Basal nuclei are clusters (pockets) of gray matter located deep within the cerebrum. Their main role is the subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and coordination, often referred to as muscle memory or habit learning. Parkinson's disease is associated with dysfunction of the basal nuclei.</p>

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What functions or emotions are commonly associated with the amygdala?

<p>The amygdala is associated with processing emotions, particularly fear, as well as motivation and basic drives. It's linked to 'deepest desires, fears, and motivations'.</p>

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What is the primary function of the hippocampus, and what neurological disease is often associated with its damage?

<p>The primary function of the hippocampus is the formation and consolidation of new long-term memories. Alzheimer's disease is often associated with significant damage to the hippocampus.</p>

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Which general area do cranial nerves 1-9 and 12 primarily serve?

<p>Cranial nerves 1 through 9, plus cranial nerve 12, mainly serve the front of the head, including the face, jaw, and front of the neck.</p>

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What are hormones, where are they produced, and how do they travel?

<p>Hormones are substances released by endocrine glands that affect other glands or organs. They travel through the bloodstream.</p>

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What are target cells in the endocrine system?

<p>Target cells possess receptors for a specific hormone, allowing them to respond to that hormone.</p>

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List the six major endocrine glands.

<ol> <li>Hypothalamus, 2) Pituitary gland, 3) Thyroid gland, 4) Parathyroid gland, 5) Adrenal gland, 6) Pancreas.</li> </ol>

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Where is the pituitary gland located and what hormones does it send out?

<p>The pituitary gland is located below and connected to the hypothalamus. It releases many regulatory hormones, including ACTH, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and growth hormone (GH).</p>

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Describe the parathyroid glands: location and function.

<p>There are four parathyroid glands located on the posterior side of the thyroid gland. They release parathyroid hormone (PTH), which targets bones (specifically osteoclasts) to increase blood calcium levels.</p>

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Where are the adrenal glands located, what hormone do they release to increase blood pressure, and what are they associated with?

<p>Adrenal glands sit on top of each kidney. They release aldosterone to increase blood pressure and are associated with the body's stress response.</p>

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What gland releases aldosterone, what does it target, and what is its effect?

<p>Aldosterone is released by the adrenal gland. It targets the kidneys, causing them to reabsorb sodium, which ultimately increases blood pressure.</p>

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Where is the pancreas located and what key hormones does it release?

<p>The pancreas sits underneath the stomach. It releases insulin and glucagon.</p>

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Where is the hypothalamus located and what is its primary function?

<p>The hypothalamus is located at the bottom of the diencephalon. It serves as the master control gland, linking the nervous system with the endocrine system; it is composed of neural tissue.</p>

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What does ACTH stand for, where does it come from, and what does it target?

<p>ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) comes from the pituitary gland. It targets the adrenal glands, causing them to release corticoids.</p>

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Where is the thyroid gland located and what hormones does it release?

<p>The thyroid gland surrounds the larynx (voicebox). It releases T3 (triiodothyronine), T4 (thyroxine), and calcitonin.</p>

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What do T3 and T4 hormones do, and where do they come from?

<p>T3 and T4 target all cells in the body to increase overall metabolism. They are released by the thyroid gland.</p>

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Where does calcitonin come from and what does it target/do?

<p>Calcitonin comes from the thyroid gland. It targets bone, specifically osteoblasts, promoting calcium deposition into bone matrix and thereby lowering blood calcium levels.</p>

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What is the purpose of the short-term stress response, and what hormones are involved?

<p>The short-term stress response helps the body become energized to quickly achieve an important goal. It involves the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine by the adrenal gland.</p>

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What are potential consequences of long-term stress, and what hormones are involved?

<p>Long-term stress can lead to reduced immunity and high blood pressure. It involves the release of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids by the adrenal glands.</p>

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What hormone does the heart produce to regulate blood pressure, and what does it target?

<p>The heart produces atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH). It targets the kidneys, prompting them to secrete more sodium, which helps lower blood pressure.</p>

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What releases insulin, and what does it target/do?

<p>Insulin is released by the pancreas. It targets all cells and causes a decrease in blood glucose levels by facilitating glucose uptake.</p>

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What releases glucagon, and what does it target/do?

<p>Glucagon is released by the pancreas. It targets the liver, stimulating it to release stored glucose, thereby raising blood glucose levels.</p>

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What is diabetes mellitus?

<p>Diabetes mellitus is a chronic, long-term condition characterized by abnormally high levels of blood glucose.</p>

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What is type 1 diabetes primarily caused by?

<p>Type 1 diabetes occurs when the body is not producing enough insulin or produces defective insulin. It often has a genetic basis and is considered an autoimmune disease.</p>

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What is type 2 diabetes primarily caused by?

<p>Type 2 diabetes occurs when the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin (insulin resistance) or the pancreas doesn't produce enough insulin. Often linked to lifestyle factors.</p>

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What does the pineal gland produce and what does it regulate?

<p>The pineal gland produces melatonin, which helps regulate the 24-hour sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm).</p>

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What hormone does adipose tissue produce and what is its function?

<p>Adipose tissue produces leptin, which helps regulate the hunger drive and energy balance.</p>

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What chemical is associated with damaged tissues and the pain response?

<p>Damaged tissues release prostaglandins, which contribute to the pain and inflammation response.</p>

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What are gonads and what do they release?

<p>Gonads are the primary reproductive organs (testes in males, ovaries in females). They release sex hormones.</p>

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What are sensory receptors?

<p>Sensory receptors are structures that detect stimuli (information) from the internal and external environment.</p>

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What do chemoreceptors monitor?

<p>Chemoreceptors monitor chemical substances, such as calcium levels, oxygen concentration, pH, tastes, and smells.</p>

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What do photoreceptors detect?

<p>Photoreceptors detect light.</p>

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What stimuli do mechanoreceptors respond to?

<p>Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimuli such as touch, pressure, stretching, and vibration.</p>

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What do thermoreceptors monitor?

<p>Thermoreceptors monitor temperature (hot and cold).</p>

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Define sensation.

<p>Sensation is the conscious awareness of a stimulus after the brain interprets signals from sensory receptors.</p>

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What is sensory adaptation?

<p>Sensory adaptation is the process by which sensitivity to a constant or unchanging stimulus lessens over time.</p>

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What are somatic senses and where are their receptors located?

<p>Somatic senses are those whose receptors are scattered throughout the body, rather than confined to a specific organ. These include receptors in the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera.</p>

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What are special senses and where are their receptors located?

<p>Special senses have receptors concentrated in specific locations or organs in the head. These include taste, smell, vision, hearing, and equilibrium (balance).</p>

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What type of receptor mediates both taste and smell?

<p>Chemoreceptors.</p>

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What are the basic types of tastes?

<p>Sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami (often associated with savory tastes).</p>

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Which sense is strongly connected to long-term memory, and where in the brain is it processed?

<p>Smell (olfaction) is strongly connected to long-term memory. Olfactory information is processed in areas closely linked to the hippocampus and amygdala, which are involved in memory and emotion.</p>

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Outline the pathway of light through the eye to the retina.

<ol> <li>Cornea, 2) Aqueous humor, 3) Pupil (controlled by the iris), 4) Lens, 5) Vitreous humor, 6) Retina.</li> </ol>

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What is the blind spot in the eye?

<p>The blind spot (optic disc) is the area on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye. It lacks photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) and therefore cannot detect light.</p>

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What is the fovea centralis and where is it located?

<p>The fovea centralis is a small depression in the retina that provides the clearest, sharpest vision (highest visual acuity). It has a high concentration of cone cells.</p>

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What is the function of rods in the retina, and where is their greatest concentration?

<p>Rods are photoreceptor cells that help us see in low light conditions (night vision) and detect motion. Their greatest concentration is in the peripheral regions of the retina, outside the fovea.</p>

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What is the function of cones in the retina, and where is their greatest concentration?

<p>Cones are photoreceptor cells responsible for color vision and sharp detail (visual acuity) in bright light. Their greatest concentration is in the fovea centralis.</p>

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What type of receptor are rods and cones?

<p>Photoreceptors.</p>

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What does 'focus' mean in the context of vision?

<p>Focus refers to the process of adjusting the lens of the eye to bend incoming light rays so that they converge precisely on the retina, creating the sharpest possible image.</p>

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Describe the state of the eye's focusing structures when viewing a distant object.

<p>When focusing on a distant object, the ciliary muscles are relaxed, causing the suspensory ligaments to tighten (stretch). This pulls the lens, making it flatter and thinner.</p>

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Describe the state of the eye's focusing structures when viewing a near object.

<p>When focusing on a near object, the ciliary muscles contract. This relaxes the tension on the suspensory ligaments, allowing the lens to become thicker and more rounded due to its natural elasticity.</p>

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What are the main structures of the outer ear?

<p>The outer ear consists of the pinna (auricle) and the auditory canal (external acoustic meatus).</p>

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What structure serves as the dividing line between the outer ear and the middle ear?

<p>The tympanic membrane (eardrum).</p>

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What are the main structures of the middle ear?

<p>The middle ear contains the three auditory ossicles (bones: malleus, incus, stapes) and the auditory tube (Eustachian tube).</p>

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What structures form the dividing line between the middle ear and the inner ear?

<p>The oval window and the round window.</p>

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What are the main structures of the inner ear?

<p>The inner ear consists of the cochlea (for hearing), the vestibule, and the three semicircular canals (both for equilibrium/balance).</p>

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How do sound waves physically move?

<p>Sound waves propagate as vibrations, causing particles in a medium (like air) to move back and forth, creating areas of compression and rarefaction.</p>

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What is the main organ for hearing located within the cochlea?

<p>The spiral organ (Organ of Corti).</p>

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What are hair cells within the spiral organ, and what type of receptor are they?

<p>Hair cells are the sensory receptors for hearing located within the spiral organ. They are mechanoreceptors.</p>

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What are stereocilia in the context of hearing?

<p>Stereocilia are the microscopic hair-like projections (microvilli) found on the top surface of hair cells in the inner ear.</p>

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What is the tectorial membrane?

<p>The tectorial membrane is a gelatinous structure that lies over the hair cells within the spiral organ of the cochlea.</p>

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What is the shared function of the semicircular canals and the vestibule?

<p>Both the semicircular canals and the vestibule are involved in maintaining equilibrium (balance). They keep track of the head's position and movement in space.</p>

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What specific type of head movement do the semicircular canals primarily register?

<p>The semicircular canals register rotational or angular acceleration of the head (e.g., turning the head side-to-side, nodding).</p>

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What specific types of movement does the vestibule primarily register?

<p>The vestibule (containing the utricle and saccule) registers linear acceleration and deceleration (changes in speed in a straight line) and the position of the head relative to gravity (static equilibrium).</p>

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What are the two main parts of the central nervous system (CNS)?

<p>Brain and spinal cord.</p>

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What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?

<p>The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory nerves and motor nerves that extend outside the brain and spinal cord.</p>

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What is the function of sensory nerves and what are they connected to?

<p>Sensory nerves (afferent nerves) bring information into the central nervous system from the body. They are connected to sensory receptors.</p>

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What is the function of motor nerves and how are they further divided?

<p>Motor nerves (efferent nerves) carry commands out from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. They are divided into the somatic nervous system (voluntary control) and the autonomic nervous system (involuntary control).</p>

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How are autonomic nerves further divided?

<p>Autonomic nerves (part of the motor division of the PNS) are divided into the sympathetic division ('fight-or-flight') and the parasympathetic division ('rest-and-digest').</p>

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What is the function of sensory neurons?

<p>Sensory neurons transmit nerve impulses from sensory receptors towards the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).</p>

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What is the function of motor neurons?

<p>Motor neurons transmit nerve impulses away from the central nervous system towards effectors (muscles or glands) to carry out commands.</p>

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What are interneurons, where are they located, and what is their function?

<p>Interneurons are neurons located entirely within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). They process information received from sensory neurons and transmit signals to motor neurons.</p>

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What does myelination reveal in nervous tissue?

<p>Myelination reveals coloration: myelinated axons appear white (white matter), while areas with neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons appear gray (gray matter).</p>

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What is the function of myelin sheaths?

<p>Myelin sheaths act as electrical insulation around nerve axons, which significantly increases the speed at which nerve signals (action potentials) are transmitted.</p>

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What does white matter primarily contain, and what does gray matter primarily contain?

<p>White matter primarily contains myelinated axons. Gray matter primarily contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, and synapses.</p>

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What is resting potential in a neuron?

<p>Resting potential is the electrical charge difference across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting a signal (at rest). The neuron is polarized, with the outside of the membrane being more positive relative to the inside.</p>

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What is an action potential, and what is another term often used to describe it?

<p>An action potential is a rapid, temporary change in the electrical potential across the neuron's membrane, which propagates along the axon as a nerve signal. It is often referred to as depolarization because the membrane potential becomes less negative (or even positive) during the event.</p>

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Define signal transmission in the nervous system.

<p>Signal transmission refers to the process of passing a nerve signal (action potential) from one neuron to the next across a synapse.</p>

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Define synapse.

<p>A synapse is the functional junction or point of close contact between two neurons, or between a neuron and an effector cell (like a muscle or gland cell), where information is transmitted.</p>

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What is the synaptic cleft?

<p>The synaptic cleft is the microscopic space between the presynaptic neuron (sending signal) and the postsynaptic neuron (receiving signal) at a chemical synapse.</p>

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What are neurotransmitters and what roles can they play?

<p>Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released by a presynaptic neuron that diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, transmitting the signal. They can be either excitatory (promoting an action potential) or inhibitory (preventing an action potential).</p>

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What is synaptic integration and what does it control?

<p>Synaptic integration is the process by which a postsynaptic neuron sums up all the excitatory and inhibitory signals it receives from multiple presynaptic neurons. The net effect determines whether the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential. This process controls complex behaviors and decision-making at the neuronal level.</p>

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What are the key nerve components associated with the spinal cord mentioned?

<p>Dorsal nerves (carrying sensory information), ventral nerves (carrying motor commands), and nerve tracts (running to and from the brain).</p>

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What is the function of dorsal nerves (roots) associated with the spinal cord?

<p>Dorsal nerves carry sensory information from various parts of the body into the spinal cord and ultimately towards the brain.</p>

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What is the function of ventral nerves (roots) associated with the spinal cord?

<p>Ventral nerves contain motor neurons that carry commands from the brain and spinal cord out to muscles and glands.</p>

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What are nerve tracts within the spinal cord?

<p>Nerve tracts are bundles of myelinated axons within the white matter of the spinal cord that run vertically, carrying signals either up towards the brain (ascending tracts) or down from the brain (descending tracts).</p>

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What is the cerebrum and its main function?

<p>The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, consisting of two hemispheres. Its main functions include higher-level cognitive processes like thinking, learning, memory, and conscious thought, as well as processing sensory information (somatosensory integration) and initiating voluntary movements.</p>

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What is the diencephalon and its main function?

<p>The diencephalon is located deep within the center of the cerebrum, superior to the brainstem. Its main function is homeostatic control, acting as a relay station for sensory information (thalamus) and regulating many autonomic functions, hormone release, and basic drives (hypothalamus).</p>

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What is the primary function of the brain stem?

<p>The brain stem connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It controls essential autonomic functions necessary for survival, such as heart rate (cardiac control centers) and breathing (respiratory control centers).</p>

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What is the function of the cerebellum and what substance is it particularly susceptible to?

<p>The cerebellum, located at the back of the brain beneath the cerebrum, coordinates voluntary movements, posture, balance, coordination, and motor learning. It is particularly susceptible to the effects of alcohol.</p>

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Where is the corpus callosum located and what is its function?

<p>The corpus callosum is a large bundle of nerve fibers (white matter) located beneath the cerebral cortex, above the diencephalon. Its function is to connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres, allowing communication between them.</p>

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What are ventricles in the brain?

<p>Ventricles are interconnected cavities within the brain that produce and contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).</p>

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What is the cerebral cortex and what type of matter is it composed of?

<p>The cerebral cortex is the thin, folded outer layer of the cerebrum. It is composed primarily of gray matter (neuron cell bodies, dendrites, synapses).</p>

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What are the functions associated with the prefrontal cortex?

<p>The prefrontal cortex (part of the frontal lobe) is associated with executive functions: thinking, planning, decision-making, concentration, working memory, personality expression, and understanding the consequences of actions.</p>

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What sense does the parietal lobe primarily register?

<p>The parietal lobe primarily registers and processes the sense of touch (somatosensation), including pressure, temperature, and pain, as well as spatial awareness and navigation.</p>

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What is the primary function associated with the frontal lobe (excluding the prefrontal cortex)?

<p>The frontal lobe (specifically the motor cortex areas) is responsible for planning and executing voluntary motor commands for movement.</p>

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What sense does the occipital lobe primarily process?

<p>The occipital lobe is primarily responsible for processing visual information.</p>

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What sense does the temporal lobe primarily register?

<p>The temporal lobe primarily registers and processes auditory information (hearing). It is also involved in memory formation and language comprehension.</p>

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What senses does the insula register?

<p>The insula, located deep within the lateral sulcus, registers taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction). It is also involved in interoception (awareness of internal body states) and emotion.</p>

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What is the function of Wernicke's area?

<p>Wernicke's area, typically located in the temporal lobe (usually the left hemisphere), is crucial for understanding written and spoken language (language comprehension).</p>

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What is the function of Broca's area?

<p>Broca's area, typically located in the frontal lobe (usually the left hemisphere), is responsible for speech production – organizing the motor commands required for articulate speech.</p>

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What are basal nuclei, what is their main role, and what disease is associated with their dysfunction?

<p>Basal nuclei (or basal ganglia) are clusters (pockets) of gray matter located deep within the cerebrum. Their main role is the subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and coordination of learned movement patterns (often referred to as 'muscle memory'). Parkinson's disease is associated with the degeneration of neurons in the basal nuclei.</p>

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What is the function of the amygdala?

<p>The amygdala, part of the limbic system located within the temporal lobe, is primarily involved in processing emotions, particularly fear, aggression, and linking emotions to memories. It plays a role in deepest desires, fears, and motivations.</p>

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What is the function of the hippocampus and what disease is associated with its deterioration?

<p>The hippocampus, part of the limbic system located within the temporal lobe, plays a critical role in the formation and consolidation of new long-term memories (learning and memory storage). Alzheimer's disease is strongly associated with damage and deterioration of the hippocampus.</p>

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What general area do cranial nerves 1-9 and 12 primarily serve?

<p>Cranial nerves 1 through 9, along with cranial nerve 12, mainly provide sensory and motor functions for the front of the head, including the face, jaw, eyes, nose, tongue, and front part of the neck.</p>

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What are hormones, where are they produced, and how do they travel?

<p>Hormones are substances sent out by one endocrine gland that affect another endocrine gland or organ. They travel through the bloodstream.</p>

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What are target cells?

<p>Target cells have a receptor for a specific hormone or substance.</p>

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List the 6 major endocrine glands.

<p>1.) hypothalamus 2.) pituitary gland 3.) thyroid gland 4.) parathyroid gland 5.) adrenal gland 6.) pancreas</p>

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Where is the pituitary gland located and what does it do?

<p>It is located below and connected to the hypothalamus. It sends out many regulatory hormones like ACTH, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and growth hormone.</p>

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Describe the parathyroid glands and their function.

<p>There are four parathyroid glands located on the backside of the thyroid gland. They release parathyroid hormone (PTH) which targets bones and osteoclasts to raise blood calcium levels.</p>

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Where are the adrenal glands located, what do they release, and what are they associated with?

<p>They sit on top of each kidney. They are associated with stress and release aldosterone to increase blood pressure.</p>

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Where is aldosterone released from and what does it target?

<p>Aldosterone is released by the adrenal gland. It targets the kidneys to reabsorb sodium, which increases blood pressure.</p>

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Where is the pancreas located and what hormones does it release?

<p>It sits underneath the stomach and releases insulin and glucagon.</p>

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What is the hypothalamus and where is it located?

<p>It is located at the bottom of the diencephalon. It is the master control gland that links the nervous system with the endocrine system; it is composed of neural tissue.</p>

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What is ACTH, where does it come from, and what does it target?

<p>ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) comes from the pituitary gland. It targets the adrenal glands and causes the release of corticoids.</p>

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What is the thyroid gland, where is it located, and what does it release?

<p>It surrounds the larynx (voicebox). It releases T3 and T4 hormones and calcitonin.</p>

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What are T3 and T4 hormones, where do they come from, and what is their function?

<p>T3 and T4 come from the thyroid gland. They target all cells in the body and increase metabolism.</p>

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Where does calcitonin come from and what is its function?

<p>Calcitonin comes from the thyroid gland. It targets bone and osteoblasts, potentially lowering calcium release into the bloodstream (original text is slightly ambiguous).</p>

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Describe the body's response to short-term stress.

<p>The body becomes energized to achieve an important goal quickly. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the adrenal gland.</p>

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Describe the effects and hormonal response associated with long-term stress.

<p>Long-term stress can lead to reduced immunity and high blood pressure. Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids are released by the adrenal glands.</p>

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What hormone does the heart produce to regulate blood pressure, and what does it target?

<p>The heart produces atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH). It targets the kidneys to secrete more sodium, which lowers blood pressure.</p>

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What releases insulin, and what does it target?

<p>Insulin is released by the pancreas. It targets all cells and causes a decrease in blood glucose.</p>

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What releases glucagon, and what does it target?

<p>Glucagon is released by the pancreas. It targets the liver and raises blood glucose.</p>

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What is diabetes mellitus?

<p>Diabetes mellitus is a chronic, long-term condition characterized by abnormally high levels of blood glucose.</p>

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What characterizes type 1 diabetes?

<p>It is characterized by the body not producing enough insulin or producing defective insulin. It often has a genetic basis.</p>

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What characterizes type 2 diabetes?

<p>It is characterized by cells not producing enough receptors for insulin or becoming resistant to insulin's effects.</p>

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What is the function of the pineal gland?

<p>The pineal gland produces melatonin, which helps regulate the 24-hour sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm).</p>

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What hormone related to hunger is produced by adipose tissue?

<p>Adipose tissue produces leptin, which helps regulate the hunger drive.</p>

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What chemicals are associated with the pain response in damaged tissues?

<p>Damaged tissues release prostaglandins, which contribute to the pain response.</p>

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What hormones do the gonads release?

<p>The gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females) release sex hormones.</p>

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What are sensory receptors?

<p>Sensory receptors are structures that pick up information (a stimulus) from the internal and external environment.</p>

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What do chemoreceptors monitor?

<p>Chemoreceptors monitor chemicals, such as calcium levels, oxygen levels, pH, etc.</p>

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What do photoreceptors detect?

<p>Photoreceptors pick up light.</p>

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What stimuli do mechanoreceptors respond to?

<p>Mechanoreceptors respond to touch, pressure, stretching, and vibration.</p>

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What do thermoreceptors monitor?

<p>Thermoreceptors monitor temperature.</p>

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What is sensation?

<p>Sensation is the conscious awareness of a stimulus.</p>

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What is sensory adaptation?

<p>Sensory adaptation is the lessening of sensitivity to a constant stimulus.</p>

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What are somatic senses, and where are their receptors found?

<p>Somatic senses have receptors that are scattered around the body, including in the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera.</p>

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What are special senses, and where are their receptors found?

<p>Special senses have receptors found in specific locations, including taste, smell, vision, hearing, and equilibrium.</p>

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What type of receptor is responsible for both taste and smell?

<p>Both taste and smell utilize chemoreceptors.</p>

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What are the primary types of tastes?

<p>The primary tastes include sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. (Umami is often considered the fifth).</p>

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Which sense is strongly connected to long-term memory, and where is it processed?

<p>Smell is strongly connected to long-term memory and is processed in areas linked to the hippocampus.</p>

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Describe the optic pathway for light entering the eye.

<ol> <li>Cornea 2) Aqueous humor 3) Iris and pupil 4) Lens 5) Vitreous humor 6) Retina</li> </ol>

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What is the blind spot in the eye?

<p>The blind spot is the area on the retina where the optic nerve exits, which has the lowest concentration of photoreceptors (specifically, none).</p>

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What is the fovea centralis, and where is it located?

<p>The fovea centralis is the area of highest visual acuity or sharpest focus. It is located in the retina.</p>

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What is the function of rods in the eye, and where is their greatest concentration?

<p>Rods help us see in low light. Their greatest concentration is on the sides (periphery) of the retina.</p>

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What is the function of cones in the eye, and where is their greatest concentration based on the provided text?

<p>Cones help us see in color. According to the text, their greatest concentration is on the sides of the retina.</p>

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What type of receptor are rods and cones?

<p>Rods and cones are photoreceptors.</p>

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What does it mean for the eye to 'focus'?

<p>Focusing involves adjusting the path of light to create the sharpest possible image on the retina.</p>

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Describe the state of the eye's muscles, ligaments, and lens when focusing on a distant object.

<p>When focusing on a distant object, the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the suspensory ligaments stretch (are taut), and the lens is flattened; the diameter of the ciliary body is larger.</p>

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Describe the state of the eye's muscles, ligaments, and lens when focusing on a near object.

<p>When focusing on a near object, the ciliary muscles contract, the suspensory ligaments relax, and the lens gets thicker (more rounded).</p>

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What are the main structures of the outer ear?

<p>The outer ear consists of the pinna (auricle) and the auditory canal.</p>

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What structure forms the dividing line between the outer and middle ear?

<p>The tympanic membrane (eardrum) forms the dividing line.</p>

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What are the main structures of the middle ear?

<p>The middle ear contains the auditory ossicles (bones: malleus, incus, stapes) and the auditory (Eustachian) tubes.</p>

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What structures form the dividing line between the middle and inner ear?

<p>The oval window and the round window separate the middle ear from the inner ear.</p>

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What are the main structures of the inner ear?

<p>The inner ear contains the three semicircular canals, the vestibule, and the cochlea.</p>

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How do sound waves move?

<p>Sound waves move back and forth (as vibrations or pressure waves).</p>

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What is the main organ for hearing?

<p>The spiral organ (Organ of Corti) is the main organ for hearing.</p>

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What type of receptors are the hair cells of the spiral organ?

<p>The hair cells are mechanoreceptors.</p>

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What are stereocilia in the context of hearing?

<p>Stereocilia are the microvilli (hair-like projections) of the hair cells in the spiral organ.</p>

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What is the tectorial membrane?

<p>The tectorial membrane is a structure covering over the hair cells in the spiral organ.</p>

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What is the shared function of the semicircular canals and the vestibule?

<p>Both structures keep track of where your head is in space and time, contributing to the sense of equilibrium (balance).</p>

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What specific movement do the semicircular canals register?

<p>The semicircular canals register the rotation of the head, as fluid inside the three canals moves around.</p>

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What movements does the vestibule register?

<p>The vestibule (to which the oval window is connected) registers linear acceleration and deceleration (changes in straight-line motion and head tilt relative to gravity).</p>

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What are the main parts of the central nervous system (CNS)?

<p>The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord.</p>

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What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?

<p>The PNS consists of sensory nerves and motor nerves.</p>

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What is the function of sensory nerves?

<p>Sensory nerves bring information into the central nervous system. They are connected to sensory receptors.</p>

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What is the function of motor nerves, and what are their subdivisions?

<p>Motor nerves carry commands out of the central nervous system. They break down into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) nerves.</p>

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What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

<p>The autonomic nervous system breaks down into the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.</p>

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What is the function of sensory neurons?

<p>Sensory neurons bring in information from sensory receptors.</p>

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What is the function of motor neurons?

<p>Motor neurons carry out commands from the CNS to effectors like muscles and glands.</p>

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What are interneurons, and where are they located?

<p>Interneurons are located within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). They connect other neurons and process information from receptors.</p>

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What does myelination determine in nervous tissue?

<p>Myelination determines the coloration (white vs. gray matter).</p>

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What is the primary function of myelin sheaths?

<p>Myelin sheaths increase the speed of nerve signal transmission.</p>

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What distinguishes white matter from gray matter in terms of myelination?

<p>White matter contains myelinated axons (has myelin sheaths), while gray matter primarily contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons (does not have myelin sheaths).</p>

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What is resting potential in a neuron?

<p>Resting potential is the electrical charge difference across the neuron's membrane when it is at rest. The neuron is polarized because the outer portion of the membrane is more positive on the outside and more negative on the inside.</p>

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What is an action potential, and what is another term for it?

<p>An action potential is the process of sending a signal due to a rapid change in the electrical current across the neuron's membrane. It is often referred to as depolarization because of this change in current.</p>

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What is signal transmission between neurons?

<p>Signal transmission is the process of passing a signal from one neuron to the next across a synapse.</p>

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What is a synapse?

<p>A synapse is the junction between two neurons where information is transmitted.</p>

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What is the synaptic cleft?

<p>The synaptic cleft is the physical space between two neurons at a synapse.</p>

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What are neurotransmitters, and what types exist?

<p>Neurotransmitters are chemicals that cross the synaptic cleft to continue (or inhibit) the signal from one neuron to the next. They can be excitatory or inhibitory.</p>

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What is synaptic integration, and what does it control?

<p>Synaptic integration is the net effect of all excitatory and inhibitory signals received by a postsynaptic neuron. It controls complex behaviors.</p>

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What are the key components related to nerve function in the spinal cord mentioned?

<p>Key components mentioned include dorsal nerves (carrying sensory info), ventral nerves (containing motor neurons), and nerve tracts (running to/from the brain).</p>

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What type of information do dorsal nerves in the spinal cord carry?

<p>Dorsal nerves (or roots/horns) carry sensory information coming from all over the body to the brain.</p>

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What type of neurons do ventral nerves in the spinal cord contain?

<p>Ventral nerves (or roots/horns) contain motor neurons carrying commands originating from the brain.</p>

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What are nerve tracts in the spinal cord?

<p>Nerve tracts are bundles of nerve fibers (axons) running up and down the spinal cord, connecting it to the brain.</p>

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What is the cerebrum, and what are its main functions?

<p>The cerebrum is the largest mass of the brain. Its functions include thinking and somatosensory integration.</p>

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What is the diencephalon, and what is its main function?

<p>The diencephalon is the central mass within the cerebrum. Its main function is homeostatic control.</p>

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What is the primary function of the brain stem?

<p>The brain stem contains vital cardiac and respiratory control centers.</p>

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What are the main functions of the cerebellum?

<p>The cerebellum is involved in coordination, posture, and balance. It is susceptible to alcohol.</p>

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Where is the corpus callosum located, and what is its function?

<p>The corpus callosum is located above the diencephalon. It connects the two hemispheres of the brain.</p>

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What are ventricles in the brain?

<p>Ventricles are cavities within the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).</p>

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What is the cerebral cortex, and what type of matter is it composed of?

<p>The cerebral cortex is the outer thin layer of the cerebrum. It is composed of gray matter.</p>

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What are the functions associated with the prefrontal cortex?

<p>The prefrontal cortex is associated with thinking, concentration, personality, and understanding the consequences of actions.</p>

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What sensory function is associated with the parietal lobe?

<p>The parietal lobe registers the sense of touch (somatosensation).</p>

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What type of commands originate in the frontal lobe?

<p>The frontal lobe originates motor commands for voluntary movement.</p>

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Which sense is primarily processed in the occipital lobe?

<p>The occipital lobe primarily processes vision.</p>

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Which sense is primarily processed in the temporal lobe?

<p>The temporal lobe primarily registers hearing.</p>

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Which senses are registered in the insula?

<p>The insula registers taste and smell.</p>

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What is the function of Wernicke's area?

<p>Wernicke's area is involved in reading and understanding language.</p>

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What is the function of Broca's area?

<p>Broca's area is involved in speech regulation—organizing speech commands.</p>

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What are basal nuclei, what is their main role, and what disease is associated with them?

<p>Basal nuclei (or ganglia) are pockets of gray matter located deep within the cerebrum. Their main role is the subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and coordination (muscle memory). Parkinson's disease is associated with dysfunction here.</p>

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What functions are associated with the amygdala?

<p>The amygdala is associated with deepest desires, fears, and motivations.</p>

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What is the primary function of the hippocampus, and what disease is associated with it?

<p>The hippocampus is crucial for long-term memory storage. Alzheimer's disease significantly affects this area.</p>

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Which areas are primarily served by cranial nerves 1-9 and 12?

<p>Cranial nerves 1-9 and 12 mainly cover the front of the head (face, jaw, and front of neck), providing sensory and motor functions.</p>

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Flashcards

Hormones

Substances released by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect other glands or organs.

Target Cells

Cells that possess specific receptors for a particular hormone, enabling them to respond to that hormone.

Major Endocrine Glands

Hypothalamus, 2) Pituitary gland, 3) Thyroid gland, 4) Parathyroid gland, 5) Adrenal gland, 6) Pancreas

Pituitary Gland

Located below the hypothalamus; secretes regulatory hormones like ACTH, thyroid stimulating hormone, and growth hormone.

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Parathyroid Gland

Four glands on the backside of the thyroid that release parathyroid hormone to increase blood calcium levels by targeting bones.

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Adrenal Gland

Located on top of each kidney; associated with stress response and releases aldosterone to increase blood pressure.

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Aldosterone

Released by the adrenal gland, it targets the kidneys to reabsorb sodium, increasing blood pressure.

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Pancreas

Located beneath the stomach, it releases insulin (decreases blood glucose) and glucagon (increases blood glucose).

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Hypothalamus

Located at the bottom of the diencephalon; links the nervous system with the endocrine system and controls master regulatory functions.

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ACTH

Released by the pituitary gland; targets adrenal glands to release corticoids.

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Thyroid

Surrounds the larynx (voicebox) and releases T3, T4 (increase metabolism), and calcitonin (lowers blood calcium).

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T3 and T4

Released by the thyroid gland; target all cells to increase metabolism.

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Calcitonin

Released by the thyroid gland; targets bone and osteoblasts, lowering calcium levels in the bloodstream.

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Short Term Stress

Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the adrenal gland to energize the body for quick goal achievement.

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Long Term Stress

Gluco- and mineralocorticoids released by the adrenal glands, leading to reduced immunity and high blood pressure.

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Heart Hormone/Blood Pressure

Atrial natriuretic hormone, which targets kidneys to secrete more sodium for lowering blood pressure.

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Insulin

Released by the pancreas; targets all cells to decrease blood glucose.

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Glucagon

Released by the pancreas; targets the liver to raise blood glucose.

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Diabetes Mellitus

Chronic, abnormally high level of blood glucose.

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Type 1 Diabetes

Not producing enough or defective insulin; genetic.

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Type 2 Diabetes

Cells not producing enough receptors for insulin.

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Pineal Gland

Releases melatonin to regulate the 24-hour cycle.

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Adipose Tissue

Releases leptin, which helps control the hunger drive.

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Damaged Tissues

Release prostaglandins, which cause a pain response in damaged tissue.

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Gonads

Release sex hormones (testes and ovaries).

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Sensory Receptors

Structures that pick up information (a stimulus) from the internal and external environments.

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Chemoreceptors

Monitor chemicals (calcium, O2, pH, etc.).

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Photoreceptors

Pick up light.

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Mechanoreceptors

Respond to touch, stretching, and vibration.

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Thermoreceptors

Monitor temperature.

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Sensation

Conscious awareness of a stimulus.

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Sensory Adaptation

Lessening of sensitivity to a stimulus.

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Somatic Senses

Receptors scattered around the body, including the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera.

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Special Senses

Found in specific locations: taste, smell, vision, hearing, equilibrium.

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Taste and Smell Receptor

Chemoreceptor

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Types of Tastes

-sweet, sour -bitter, salty

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Smell and Memory

Smell is connected to long term memory and is processed in the hippocampus.

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Optic Pathway for Light

Cornea -> Aqueous humor -> Iris and pupil -> Lens -> Vitreous humor -> Retina

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Blind Spot

Spot of lowest photoreceptor.

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Fovea Centralis

Area of highest visual acuity/sharpest focus; located in the retina.

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Rods

Help us see in low light, greatest concentration is on sides of retina.

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Cones

Help us see in color; greatest concentration in middle of retina

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Rods and Cones Receptor

Photoreceptors

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Focus

Adjusting light to create sharpest image possible.

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Focusing on a Distant Object

-muscles are relaxed -diameter is larger -ligaments stretch -lens is flattened

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Focusing on a Near Object

-ciliary muscles contract -ligaments relax -lens get thicker

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Structure of Outer Ear

-pinna -auditory canal

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Outer and Middle Ear Line

Tempanic membrane

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Middle Ear Structure

-auditory bones -auditory tubes

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Middle and Inner Ear Lines

-oval window -round window

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Inner Ear

-3 semicircular canals -vestibule -cochlea

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Sound waves move...

Back and Forth

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Spiral Organ

Main organ for hearing

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Hair cells

Mechanoreceptors of spiral organ

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Stereocilia

Microvilli of hair cells

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Tectorial Membrane

Covering over hair cells

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Semicircular Canals and Vestibule

Keep track of where your head is in space and time. Equilibrium

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Semicircular canals

Registers rotation of head-fluid inside 3 canals move around

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Vestibule

Oval window is connected too-registers acceleration and deacceleration

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Central Nervous System

-brain -spinal cord

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Sensory and Motor Nerves

Peripheral nervous system

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Sensory Nerves

-bring in info into central nervous system -connected to sensory receptors

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Motor Nerves

commands come out of central nervous system- break down to somatic and automatic nerves

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Automatic Nerves

break down to parasympathetic and sympathetic division

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Sensory Neurons

-bring in info

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Motor Neurons

-carry out commands

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Interneuron

-in central nervous system -enters neurons and process info from receptors -in brain and spinal cord

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Myelination Reveals...

Coloration

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Myelin Sheaths

Increase speed of signal

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White Matter, Gray Matter

-white has myelin sheaths -gray does not

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Resting Potential

-charge on neuron at rest -neurons polarized b/c outer portion of membrane is more positive on outside and more negative on inside

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Action Potential

-sending signal b/c of change in electric current across membrane -often referred to as depolarization b/c of change in current

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Signal Transmission

Passing signal from 1 neuron to next

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Synapse

Junction b/w 2 neurons

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Synaptic Cleft

Space b/w 2 neurons

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Neurotransmitters

-chemicals that cross cleft to continue signal -can be excitatory or inhibitory

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Synaptic Integration

-net effect of all excitatory and inhibitory signals -controls complex behaviors

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Spinal Cord Parts

-dorsal nerves -ventral nerves -nerve tracts

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Dorsal Nerves

-carry sensory info -info coming from all over body to the brain

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Ventral Nerves

-have motor neurons-from brain

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Nerve Tracts

-nerve running to and from brain

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Cerebrum

-biggest mass of our brain -thinking and somatosensory integration

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Diencephalon

-center mass of cerebrum -homeostatic control

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Brain Stem

-cardiac and respiratory control centers

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Cerebellum

-pressure and balance -susceptible to alcohol

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Corpus Callosum

-above diencephalon -connects 2 hemispheres of brain

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Ventricles

Cavities in brain that contain cerebral spinal fluid

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Cerebral Cortex

-outer thin layer of cerebrum -gray matter

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Prefrontal

-thinking and concentration -personality, understanding consequences of actions

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Parietal

Registers sense of touch

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Frontal

Motor commands for movement

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Occipital

Vision

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Temporal

Registers hearing

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Insula

Registers taste and smell

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Wernicke's Area

Reading and understanding language

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Broca's Area

Speech regulation--organizing speech commands

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Basal Nuclei

-pockets of gray matter and deep in cerebrum -main role: subconscious control of skeletal muscle aka muscle memory -Parkinson's disease

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Amygdala

Deepest desires, fears, and motivations

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Hippocampus

-long term memory storage -Alzheimer's

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Cranial Nerves

Mainly cover front of head (face, jaw, and front of neck)

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Study Notes

Hormones

Hormones are substances released by an endocrine gland that affects another endocrine gland or organ.
Hormones travel through the bloodstream to reach their target cells.

Target Cells

They possess receptors for specific hormones.

Major Endocrine Glands

Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Adrenal gland
Pancreas

Pituitary Gland

Located below and connected to the hypothalamus.
Secretes regulatory hormones like ACTH, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and growth hormone.

Parathyroid Gland

Usually four in number, located on the backside of the thyroid gland.
Releases parathyroid hormone, targeting bones and osteoclasts to increase blood calcium levels.

Adrenal Gland

Located on top of each kidney.
Associated with the body's stress response.
Releases aldosterone to increase blood pressure.

Aldosterone

Released by the adrenal gland.
Increases blood pressure by targeting the kidneys to reabsorb sodium.

Pancreas

Located underneath the stomach.
Releases insulin and glucagon.

Hypothalamus

Found at the bottom of the diencephalon.
Serves as the master control gland, linking the nervous and endocrine systems; it consists of neural tissue.

ACTH

Produced by the pituitary gland.
Targets the adrenal glands, prompting the release of corticoids.

Thyroid

Surrounds the larynx (voice box).
Releases T3, T4, and calcitonin.

T3 and T4

Produced by the thyroid gland.
Target all cells in the body to increase metabolism.

Calcitonin

Produced by the thyroid gland.
Targets bone and osteoblasts, releasing calcium into the bloodstream.

Short-Term Stress

Achieves an important goal quickly, energizing the body.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the adrenal gland.

Long-Term Stress

Reduces immunity and can cause high blood pressure.
Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids are released by the adrenal glands.

Atrial Natriuretic Hormone

The heart produces this hormone to regulate blood pressure.
Targets the kidneys to secrete more sodium, which lowers blood pressure.

Insulin

Released by the pancreas.
Targets all cells and causes a decrease in blood glucose levels.

Glucagon

Released by the pancreas.
Targets the liver, raising blood glucose levels.

Diabetes Mellitus

A chronic condition with abnormally high levels of blood glucose.

Type 1 Diabetes

Characterized by not producing enough or defective insulin.
Has a genetic component.

Type 2 Diabetes

Cells do not produce enough receptors for insulin.

Pineal Gland

Produces melatonin, which regulates the 24-hour sleep-wake cycle.

Adipose Tissue

Produces leptin, which helps regulate the hunger drive.

Damaged Tissues

Release prostaglandins, creating a pain response to the damaged tissue.

Gonads

Release sex hormones, produced by the testes and ovaries.

Sensory Receptors

Structures that detect stimuli from the internal and external environment.

Chemoreceptors

Monitor chemicals like calcium, oxygen (O2), and pH.

Photoreceptors

Detect light.

Mechanoreceptors

Detect touch, stretching, and vibration.

Thermoreceptors

Monitor temperature.

Sensation

Conscious awareness of a stimulus.

Sensory Adaptation

Reduction in sensitivity to a stimulus.

Somatic Senses

Receptors are scattered throughout the body.
Include senses from the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera.

Special Senses

Found in specific locations in the body.
Include taste, smell, vision, hearing, and equilibrium.

Taste and Smell Receptors

Both are chemoreceptors.

Types of Tastes

Sweet
Sour
Bitter
Salty

Smell

Connected to long-term memory and is processed in the hippocampus.

Optic Pathway for Light

Cornea
Aqueous humor
Iris and pupil
Lens
Vitreous humor
Retina

Blind Spot

The spot on the retina with the lowest concentration of photoreceptors.

Fovea Centralis

Area of highest visual acuity and sharpest focus.
Located in the retina.

Rods

Aid in seeing in low light conditions.
Greatest concentration is on the sides of the retina.

Cones

Help with seeing color.
Greatest concentration is on the sides of the retina.

Rods and Cones

Both are photoreceptors.

Focus

Adjusting light to create the sharpest image.

Focusing on a Distant Object

Muscles are relaxed.
Diameter is larger.
Ligaments stretch.
The lens is flattened.

Focusing on a Near Object

Ciliary muscles contract.
Ligaments relax.
The lens becomes thicker.

Structure of the Outer Ear

Pinna
Auditory canal

Dividing Line Between Outer and Middle Ear

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Structure of the Middle Ear

Auditory bones
Auditory tubes

Dividing Lines Between Middle and Inner Ear

Oval window
Round window

Structure of the Inner Ear

Three semicircular canals
Vestibule
Cochlea

Sound Waves

Move back and forth.

Spiral Organ

The main organ for hearing.

Hair Cells

Mechanoreceptors of the spiral organ.

Stereocilia

Microvilli of hair cells.

Tectorial Membrane

A covering over hair cells.

Semicircular Canals and Vestibule

Both keep track of head position in space and time, contributing to equilibrium.

Semicircular Canals

Register rotation of the head as fluid moves inside the three canals.

Vestibule

Connected to the oval window.
Registers acceleration and deceleration.

Central Nervous System Parts

Brain
Spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory nerves
Motor nerves

Sensory Nerves

Bring information into the central nervous system.
Connected to sensory receptors.

Motor Nerves

Carry commands out of the central nervous system, which are divided into somatic and autonomic nerves.

Autonomic Nerves

Divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.

Sensory Neurons

Bring in information.

Motor Neurons

Carry out commands.

Interneurons

Located in the central nervous system.
Integrate information from sensory neurons.
Found in the brain and spinal cord.

Myelination

Reveals coloration in nerve fibers.

Myelin Sheaths

Increase the speed of signal transmission.

White and Gray Matter

White matter has myelin sheaths.
Gray matter lacks myelin sheaths.

Resting Potential

The charge on a neuron at rest.
Neurons are polarized because the outer portion of the membrane is more positive on the outside and more negative on the inside.

Action Potential

Sending a signal involving a change in electric current across the membrane.
Often referred to as depolarization due to the change in current.

Signal Transmission

Passing a signal from one neuron to the next.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons.

Synaptic Cleft

The space between two neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that cross the synaptic cleft to continue the signal.
Can be excitatory or inhibitory.

Synaptic Integration

The net effect of all excitatory and inhibitory signals.
Controls complex behaviors.

Spinal Cord Parts

Dorsal nerves
Ventral nerves
Nerve tracts

Dorsal Nerves

Carry sensory information from all over the body to the brain.

Ventral Nerves

Contain motor neurons from the brain.

Nerve Tracts

Nerves running to and from the brain.

Cerebrum

The largest mass of the brain.
Responsible for thinking and somatosensory integration.

Diencephalon

Located in the central mass of the cerebrum.
Responsible for homeostatic control.

Brain Stem

Regulates cardiac and respiratory control centers.

Cerebellum

Controls posture and balance.
Highly susceptible to alcohol.

Corpus Callosum

Located above the diencephalon.
Connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

Ventricles

Cavities in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer thin layer of the cerebrum.
Composed of gray matter.

Prefrontal Cortex

Responsible for thinking, concentration, personality, and understanding the consequences of actions.

Parietal Lobe

Registers the sense of touch.

Frontal Lobe

Issues motor commands for movement.

Occipital Lobe

Responsible for vision.

Temporal Lobe

Registers hearing.

Insula

Registers taste and smell.

Wernicke's Area

Responsible for reading and understanding language.

Broca's Area

Regulates speech by organizing speech commands.

Basal Nuclei

Pockets of gray matter deep in the cerebrum.
Primarily responsible for the subconscious control of skeletal muscle (muscle memory).
Affected by Parkinson's disease.

Amygdala

Governs deepest desires, fears, and motivations.

Hippocampus

Responsible for long-term memory storage.
Affected by Alzheimer's disease.

Cranial Nerves

Cranial nerves 1-9 and 12 mainly cover the front of the head, including the face, jaw, and front of the neck.

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