Questions and Answers
If a strong acid were to add H^+ to the intracellular fluid, what would most likely buffer the effect?
Which statement accurately describes the bicarbonate system composed of H2CO3 and HCO3^-?
If a physiologic condition resulted in blood pH reaching 7.2, but physiological buffering systems brought the pH to 7.4, that increase in pH would be called?
The most common type of acid-base imbalance is?
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Respiratory acidosis occurs when the partial pressure of?
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Emphysema causes a decrease in the surface area of the respiratory membrane and thereby leads to respiratory?
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Compared to adults, infants are _______ susceptible to respiratory acidosis due to lower _______.
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Climbing at high altitude where oxygen levels are insufficient can lead to?
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Medicines that overstimulate respiratory centers in the brain lead to?
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When bicarbonate levels fall due to an accumulation of fixed acids in the body, the result is?
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Severe diarrhea results in the increased elimination of?
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The high metabolic rate of infants puts them at increased risk of metabolic?
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Elevated HCO3^- levels brought about by vomiting is classified as?
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An individual who consumes many antacids for stomach upset and many diuretics for high blood pressure will be at risk for metabolic?
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Renal compensation for acidosis results in?
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Renal compensation to a decrease in blood H^+ levels is to increase the activity of type?
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The development of hypoxia can limit the effectiveness of respiratory compensation for metabolic?
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Fixed acid is regulated by the _______ through the absorption and elimination of _______.
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When pH decreases, the kidney responds by?
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Infants have a relatively low residual volume, putting them at risk for _______ to accumulate in the blood, resulting in _______.
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In elderly individuals, 75% of body weight is made up of fluid.
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When comparing two individuals of the same body weight, the one with more muscle and less fat will have a higher percentage of fluid in their body.
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Most of the fluid in our body is contained within our cells.
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As an individual becomes dehydrated, the net movement of fluid in their body is from cells toward plasma.
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In order for a state of fluid balance to be achieved, obligatory water loss must equal facultative water loss.
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Insensible water loss is an example of facultative water loss.
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During dehydration, blood plasma becomes hypotonic relative to the body's cells.
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Extreme hypotonic hydration can cause brain cells to swell.
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Fluid intake causes blood volume to increase.
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Changes in blood osmolarity that turn off the thirst center also increase the release of ADH from the pituitary gland.
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Angiotensin II, aldosterone, and ADH each help decrease urine output.
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A substance that dissociates in water to form cations and anions is called a nonelectrolyte.
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Most nonelectrolytes are covalently bonded organic molecules.
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Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system triggers renin release from the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidneys.
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Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone.
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Decreased stretch of baroreceptors within the aorta and carotid arteries results in stimulation of the hypothalamus; this stimulation increases ADH secretion.
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The release of aldosterone is triggered by a decrease in blood plasma potassium levels.
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ANP causes an increase in the loss of sodium and water through urine.
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Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) inhibits the release of aldosterone, ADH, and renin.
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Fixed acid is also called volatile acid.
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Lactic acid, a product of metabolism, is considered a volatile acid.
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Severe diarrhea leads to a decrease in the pH of the blood.
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Collectively, the renal and respiratory systems comprise the chemical buffering system of the body.
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Both intracellular proteins (such as hemoglobin) and extracellular proteins (such as plasma proteins) can act as chemical buffers.
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To buffer the body's extracellular fluid compartment, dihydrogen phosphate acts as a strong base and prevents acidosis of the plasma.
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The bicarbonate buffering system is the most important buffering system in the extracellular fluid.
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Hyperventilation leads to respiratory alkalosis.
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Excessive intake of alcohol leads to respiratory alkalosis.
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Impaired renal function within the elderly elevates their risk for acid-base imbalance.
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To compensate for metabolic acidosis, the respiratory system increases breathing rate, which lowers the partial pressure of carbon dioxide below normal levels.
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Volatile acid is eliminated by the respiratory system.
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Respiratory acid-base disturbances involve fluctuations in carbonic acid whereas metabolic acid-base disturbances involve fluctuations in bicarbonate levels.
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What effects will dehydration and being lost have on the endocrine and renal systems?
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When fluid intake equals fluid output, and there is a normal distribution of solvent and solutes, fluid ______ exists.
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An accumulation of fluid in one area of the body is known as fluid ______.
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An elevated level of potassium in the blood is referred to as ______.
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The neurons sensitive to changes in blood osmolarity are ______.
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Carbonic acid is referred to as ______ acid because it is produced from a gas that evaporates quickly.
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When bicarbonate acts as a weak base and accepts a proton, the molecule ______ acid is formed.
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When physiological systems cannot compensate for an acid-base disturbance, it is referred to as an acid-base ______.
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At which stage of life is the percentage of fluid in the human body highest?
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When comparing a lean adult female to a lean adult male, which will most likely have a higher percentage of body fluid?
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Fluid imbalances are more common in individuals with a ______ percentage of body fluid.
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Elderly individuals generally have a ______ percentage of body fluid and are therefore ______ prone to fluid imbalances.
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A comparison of the two major body fluid compartments reveals that
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The plasma of our blood constitutes ______ than half of the fluid in our body; plasma is part of the ______ fluid.
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Interstitial fluid composes about ______ of the body's extracellular fluid.
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Cerebrospinal fluid and synovial fluid are both examples of
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When compared to extracellular fluid, intracellular fluid contains
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Interstitial fluid has a relatively ______ concentration of sodium and chloride; the concentrations of ions within the interstitial fluid and blood plasma are very ______.
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Which statement describes the permeability to water of the cell membrane and the capillary wall?
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Drinking a liter of water will cause the osmolarity of blood plasma to
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If someone runs a marathon through a desert while eating pretzels and not drinking water, their plasma osmolarity
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Which type of intake accounts for most of our daily fluid intake?
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Aerobic cellular respiration and dehydration synthesis reactions result in
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Ingestion of food results in water
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Water lost through feces is considered ______ water loss.
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Facultative water loss is loss that
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In the condition of volume excess, fluid gain involves
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If someone in an accident suffered severe burns as well as hemorrhage, they would be at high risk for
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Renal failure would likely lead to
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Diabetes mellitus, profuse sweating, and hyposecretion of ADH can each lead to
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Runners who drink too much water before a marathon run a risk of water intoxication, also known as
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Edema is an example of
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Blockage of lymphatic vessels increases the likelihood of
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Feelings of thirstiness are brought on by
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Decreases in blood pressure turn ______ the thirst center of the brain.
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The thirst center of the brain is located in the
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Distention of the stomach causes thirst to
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Which of the following does not turn off the thirst center of the brain?
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When compared with the effects of blood pressure and osmolarity on fluid intake, the effects of saliva and stomach distention are
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The hormone ANP
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The molecule HCl is an example of a(n)
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To account for their effects on osmotic pressure, the concentration of electrolytes is often expressed in
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When NaCl is added to body fluids, it results in the addition of
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The most abundant cation within cells is
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The most abundant anion in the extracellular fluid is
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Which ion is the principal solute of the ECF and is crucial for neuromuscular and renal function?
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How are sodium levels and blood pressure related?
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Most potassium loss from the body occurs through
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When the pH of the ECF decreases, K^+ starts to move from the
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Insulin causes blood plasma levels of potassium to ______ by ______ activity of the Na^+/K^+ pumps.
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Increases in secretion of the hormone ADH cause sodium concentration in the blood plasma to
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How does the hormone aldosterone influence potassium levels?
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Low levels of calcium within cells are maintained by
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Renin is released from the juxtaglomerular apparatus in response to
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Angiotensin II triggers
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Angiotensin II causes a(n)
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Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is synthesized in the ______ and released from the ______.
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The stimuli that trigger the release of ADH are
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High levels of ADH cause
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In the brain, ADH ______ the thirst center, and in the kidneys, ADH causes an increase in water ______.
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The adrenal gland releases aldosterone in response to
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Aldosterone exerts effects on principal cells of the kidney by causing
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Aldosterone causes kidney tubules to
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The stimulus that directly triggers the release of ANP is
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The hormone ANP causes systemic blood vessels to
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Atrial natriuretic peptide causes ______ of afferent arterioles and ______ of mesangial cells.
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Fixed acids are generally regulated by physiological buffering provided by the
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Most of the fixed acid in our body comes from
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A diet rich in animal protein contributes to increased levels of
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When blood starts to become too acidic, the kidneys respond by
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When blood starts to become more alkaline than normal, the renal tubules begin to
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The process by which the kidneys eliminate excess acid or base is relatively
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If someone begins to hyperventilate due to anxiety, the CO₂ concentration in their blood decreases; this causes ______ in blood pH.
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If an individual's respiratory rate decreases, then blood CO₂ levels
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The amine groups contained within amino acids of proteins can act as weak
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Study Notes
Endocrine and Renal Interaction During Dehydration
- An unprepared hiker lost in heat will experience stress response, activating the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
- Increased secretion of hormones such as adrenaline and aldosterone influences sodium retention and water reabsorption in kidneys.
- Resulting actions mitigate dehydration effects, promoting fluid conservation.
Fluid Balance and Imbalance Concepts
- Homeostasis occurs when fluid intake matches output, maintaining normal osmotic conditions.
- Fluid sequestration refers to non-utilizable fluid accumulation in certain body areas.
- Hyperkalemia is the medical term for elevated potassium blood levels.
Hormonal Signals and Their Effects
- Osmolarity changes in the hypothalamus stimulate release of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) from specialized neurons.
- Carbonic acid is termed "volatile" acid due to its formation from quickly evaporating gas.
- Bicarbonate acts as a weak base; accepting protons forms carbonic acid.
- An acid-base disturbance becomes chronic when physiological compensation fails.
Fluids in Human Life Stages
- Body fluid percentage is highest during infancy, and decreases in childhood, middle, and advanced age.
- Lean adult males have a higher percentage of body fluid compared to lean adult females.
- Fluid imbalance is prevalent in individuals with lower body fluid percentages, such as the elderly.
Body Fluid Compartments
- Approximately two-thirds of total body fluid exists within cells, while one-third is extracellular.
- Plasma accounts for over half of body fluid, categorized as extracellular fluid.
- Interstitial fluid comprises about one-third of the body's extracellular fluid.
Electrolytes and Their Functions
- Intracellular fluid exhibits higher levels of potassium and negatively charged proteins than extracellular fluid.
- Sodium is the principal extracellular fluid solute crucial for neuromuscular functions.
- Potassium loss predominantly occurs through urine.
Hormonal Regulation of Fluid and Electrolyte Levels
- ADH promotes water reabsorption in kidneys and increased blood volume and pressure.
- Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion, influencing blood pressure.
- Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) decreases blood pressure by causing vasodilation and increased urine output.
Acid-Base Regulation by the Kidneys
- Kidneys manage fixed acids primarily through secretion and reabsorption of bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.
- Phosphate and bicarbonate systems buffer pH fluctuations in bodily fluids.
- Respiratory rate affects blood CO₂ levels, which correlate to blood pH; increased CO₂ causes acidosis, while decreased CO₂ causes alkalosis.
Physiological Responses to Environmental Stress
- Conditions like severe burns and hemorrhage heighten the risk for volume depletion.
- Excessive water intake can lead to hypotonic hydration, creating imbalances.
- Symptoms such as thirst and hormonal fluctuations are direct responses to hydration levels and electrolytes.
Special Conditions Affecting Acid-Base Balance
- Respiratory acidosis may occur due to CO₂ buildup from conditions like emphysema.
- High altitude can induce respiratory alkalosis from reduced oxygen availability.
- Medications stimulating respiratory centers may lead to respiratory alkalosis by excessively increasing breathing rates.
Infancy and Age Factors
- Infants are more susceptible to respiratory acidosis due to lower lung capacity and residual volume compared to adults.### Acid-Base Balance and Disorders
- Decreased bicarbonate levels due to fixed acid accumulation lead to metabolic acidosis.
- Severe diarrhea causes loss of bicarbonate ions, resulting in acidosis.
- Infants have a high metabolic rate, increasing their risk of metabolic acidosis.
- Vomiting elevates HCO₃⁻ levels, classified as metabolic alkalosis.
- Frequent antacid and diuretic use can increase the risk of metabolic alkalosis.
Renal Compensation
- Renal compensation for acidosis results in urine with high bicarbonate and elevated blood levels.
- In response to decreased blood H⁺ levels, kidneys increase the activity of A cells to secrete less bicarbonate.
- Fixed acids are mainly regulated by the kidneys through absorption and elimination of bicarbonate and H⁺.
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
- Aging leads to a body weight in fluids around 75%; true for elderly individuals.
- Higher muscle mass correlates with a greater percentage of body fluid; true in comparison studies.
- Most body fluids are intracellular; main fluid compartment.
- Dehydration results in fluid movement from cells to plasma.
- Obligatory water loss and facultative water loss must be equal for fluid balance.
Water Loss and Hydration
- Insensible water loss is not a type of facultative water loss; it is involuntary.
- During dehydration, blood plasma becomes hypertonic compared to cells.
- Extreme hypotonic hydration can lead to brain cell swelling.
- Increased fluid intake elevates blood volume.
Hormonal and Regulatory Responses
- Changes in blood osmolarity affect thirst and stimulate ADH release.
- Angiotensin II, aldosterone, and ADH collectively decrease urine output.
- Substances that dissociate in water to form ions are classified as electrolytes, not nonelectrolytes.
- Most nonelectrolytes are covalently bonded organic compounds.
- Renin is released in response to decreased blood flow, not via the parasympathetic nervous system.
Acid-Base Regulation Mechanisms
- Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex.
- Stimulating the hypothalamus due to lower baroreceptor stretch increases ADH secretion.
- Aldosterone release is prompted by increases in blood plasma potassium levels.
- ANP promotes sodium and water loss through urine; inhibits aldosterone and ADH.
- Fixed acid is not synonymous with volatile acid; they are distinct entities.
- Lactic acid, a metabolic product, is classified as a non-volatile acid.
Buffering Systems
- Severe diarrhea results in lower blood pH; it's associated with acidosis.
- The renal and respiratory systems together create the body's chemical buffering system.
- Both intracellular (hemoglobin) and extracellular proteins serve as chemical buffers.
- Dihydrogen phosphate functions as a weak acid rather than a strong base in buffering plasma.
- The bicarbonate system is the most crucial for extracellular fluid buffering.
- Hyperventilation is linked to respiratory alkalosis; it results from decreased CO₂ levels.
Pathophysiological Insights
- Excessive alcohol intake can lead to respiratory alkalosis; it affects respiratory function.
- For elderly individuals, impaired renal function raises the risk of acid-base imbalance.
- Compensation for metabolic acidosis involves increased respiratory rate and lowered carbon dioxide levels.
- Volatile acids, including carbonic acid, are primarily removed through the respiratory system.
- Disturbances in respiratory acid-base balance are related to carbonic acid, while metabolic disturbances involve bicarbonate level changes.
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Description
This quiz focuses on the effects of dehydration and environmental stressors on the endocrine and renal systems. It explores how hormone secretion is affected and the dynamics of fluid balance in the body. Test your understanding of these physiological processes.
