Empires & Political Order: Asia, Africa, Europe

• Study notes on primary sources, empires, and historical events across Africa, Asia, and Europe

Primary and Secondary Sources

• Primary sources originate from the time period of an event and are crucial for answering historical questions.
• Secondary sources are produced after an event, compiling sources and arguments.
• Both primary and secondary sources are important for understanding the information objectively.
• Tertiary sources are about primary and secondary sources.
• Bias is an inevitable part of historical sources due to both conscious and unconscious factors, including available resources.
• Bias can also provide different points of view to help better understand a topic.

Historiography and Methodology

• Historiography is the study of historical writing.
• Methodology encompasses how historians gather evidence and formulate ideas.

Five Main Points of Political Order

• State refers to organized power over people within a specific territory.
• Sovereignty is the effort by an individual or group to govern, requiring the maintenance of authority.
• Legitimacy is when a sovereign justifies power through knowledge, not just force.
• Divine Right is a sovereign's claim of being divinely chosen to rule.
• Empire is sovereignty over a large territory, with a goal of continuous expansion.
• Succession is a vulnerable period when one sovereign replaces another, usually through family lineage.

The Black Death/The Plague/The Bubonic Plague

• The Black Death, scientifically known as Yersinia pestis, began in China in 1232 and spread across Africa, Europe, and Asia.
• Religious groups united to combat the plague but were also blamed for it.
• Isolation was discovered as preventative method, however it was not completely effective in stopping the spread.
• The Black Death caused the downfall, and also the start of, many empires and sovereignties.

Biological Old Regime

• Innovation was limited by the dependence on agriculture.

Mali Empire

• The Mali Empire's was known for vast gold mines and the wealth of Mansa Musa.
• The Mali Empire was essential to trade and economy throughout Africa, Europe, and Asia.
• The Mali Empire's legitimacy came from:
  • Gold mines, wealth, and generosity
  • Enhanced education
  • Religious influence
• Mansa Musa's pilgrimage demonstrated wealth and established new trade routes.
• The Catalan Atlas was a key map of Mali trade routes, featuring Mansa Musa and Ibn Battuta.

Mongol Empire

• Chinggis Khan/Temujin ruled from 1206
• Chinggis Khan claimed authority from the Sky God.
• The Mongol Empire improved the military with soldiers ranked on performance, increased education and trade, and maintained religious diversity.
• Pax Mongolica marked the height of the Mongol Empire
• They were known as being very strong fighters.

Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire was started by Babur, a descendant of the Timurids and Mongols
• The Mughal Empire claimed descent from the Mongols for legitimacy, legitimizing both dynasties

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

• Zhu Yuanzhang, a Han Chinese man, founded the Ming Dynasty
• Zhu Yuanzhang fought off the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, and restored Chinese authority and power
• Legitimacy was established through the Mandate of Heaven.
• The Ming Dynasty revitalized China by improving infrastructure, rebuilding the Great Wall, and constructing the Forbidden City.
• Succession had a smooth transition, as after the first emperor died, his son became who we know today as the Yongle Emperor.
• The Yongle Emperor made many changes to help China's trade.
• Zheng He took 7 voyages in the early 1400s across the Indian Ocean to Africa and Arabia.
• The voyages demonstrated power, created allies, displayed legitimacy, increased wealth, and identified overseas threats.
• Chinese goods were traded for various items, including a giraffe from Bengal.
• Diplomats were used to prevent rivals, thus helping the Yongle emperor maintain legitimacy.
• Zheng He used of the biggest and best ships to exist in the time,

Songhai Empire

• Sonni Ali took advantage of crisis in Mali after Mansa Musa died to grow the empire
• He conquered Mali + surrounding areas, and take control of Timbuktu
• The Songhai Empire acquired hard power through conquering.
• The Songhai Empire also benefited from Mali's wealth and resources to re-establish Timbuktu as a center of Islamic learning.
• Islamic education was the focus of the Songhai Empire.
• There was lots of local autonomy as long as subjects respected Songhai sovereignty, and went to war + paid taxes as expected.

Ottoman Empire

• The Ottoman Empire supposedly began with Osman's divine dream, which gave legitimacy to start his empire.
• Mehmed II (1432-1481) was a key ruler of the Ottoman Empire, he was Muslim but not Arab
• Islam was used to justify wars and expansion, similar to Christianity in the past.
• The Ottoman Empire fought against the Shi'a, as Islam was divided (Sunni Ottomans allied with Venice).
• Millets were religious communities led by government appointees.
• Almost everyone had religious freedom, which decreased the potential for discontent and helped keep peace.

Portugal

• Portugal peaked under King John I (1357-1433), who consolidated power.
• Feitorias: Portugal built over 50 trading posts along the coast of West Africa

Explore primary/secondary sources, bias in historical writing. Learn Historiography, methodology & political order. Understand the role of the State & Sovereignty.