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What key social roles did material things and natural places play in ancient Andean communities?
They contributed to the production and maintenance of social relationships between people and nonhuman beings.
Indigenous Andean people have always seen their landscape and its workings in a Western way.
False
What does the term 'animism' generally describe?
What is the Quechua term that describes an act of creation?
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In Andean culture, offerings to mountains and springs are made to prevent _____ from occurring.
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Which of the following terms encompasses a community within an environment in Quechua culture?
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How do Andean people view the relationship between humans and nonhuman entities?
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Ayllu membership is based on genealogical ties only.
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The term pacha in Quechua refers to both _____ and _____ in abstract terms.
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What is a significant aspect of Andean cultural perspectives regarding the environment?
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What did the Inkas do to demonstrate respect for mummies and other material objects?
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What was the social role of objects like mummies and statues for the Andean people?
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The Inkas captured the stone pillar of the Chanca ruler to show respect.
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What practice demonstrated the exchange of camay during Inka rule?
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What responsibility were the Inkas expected to fulfill in return for the labor given by their subjects?
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What did the Inka objects symbolize in relation to the ancient Andean communities?
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Andean people rejected many Inka objects to accept the empire’s promises.
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A special corn cob put aside for offerings is called a ______.
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What was the function of large containers for serving aqha beer?
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Who is the author of the text and what is their area of research?
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What is referred to as mamasara by many indigenous Andean people?
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What does the Quechua concept 'huaca' refer to?
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Which of the following can be considered a huaca? (Select all that apply)
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What term describes the authorities, both human and nonhuman, in Quechua?
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All humans become mallki upon death.
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What is the primary purpose of offering sacrifices to huacas?
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What does the Quechua concept 'yanantin' signify?
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Match the following terms with their meanings:
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What item did Spanish historical sources indicate was used as a social identifier among indigenous Andean people?
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The Quechua term ______ signifies a person of the highest status.
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The Inkas were known to wear large earspools that matched those of other Andean leaders.
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Study Notes
Indigenous Andean Cultural Perspectives
- Ancient Andean cultures viewed material objects and natural places as having social roles and cultural significance.
- They were not simply "wealth" or "art" but essential components in practices involving offerings to powerful forces such as mountains, rivers, celestial beings, ancestors, and humans.
- These objects helped maintain social relationships between humans and the nonhuman world.
- Indigenous concepts and practices are understood through ethnohistory and ethnography, as ancient Andean people did not write their own records.
- Colonial texts from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries provide insights into their cultural traditions.
- Anthropology studies modern Aymara and Quechua communities to gain understanding of the continuity and change in ancient Andean cultural practices.
- These studies focus on how contemporary indigenous people continue to integrate their identities with natural landscapes and features.
Animism and the Concept of Camay
- The concept of "animism" is central to understanding Andean cultural perspectives.
- Mountains, rivers, and springs were perceived as having names, personalities, and required offerings to maintain their power.
- Material objects like stone buildings and pottery were believed to be animate with unique abilities and required specific materials and offerings to activate their inherent potential.
- The Quechua term "camay" describes the action of creating or charging an entity with animating force.
- All material things, living or not, possess inherent functions and purposes, realized through "camay."
- "Camay" distinguishes between the subject and object of creation, determining whether an entity gives or receives animating force.
Reciprocal Exchanges and the Role of Offerings
- Ancient Andean people believed in reciprocal exchanges of animating forces between humans, material objects, and the natural world.
- Objects like stone hammers and seashells were seen as gifts and offerings meant to energize and realize the potential of other entities.
- Inka buildings and monuments were often constructed with specific stones believed to possess unique properties and powers, requiring offerings during procurement and use.
- "Camay" highlights the interconnectedness of all beings in the ongoing creation and maintenance of the world.
The Concept of Pacha and Llacta
- "Pacha" denotes the physical world, encompassing both the local and global scales.
- It represents the ground upon which people's actions take place, emphasizing their attachment to specific environments.
- "Llacta" is the concept of a community and its social landscape, encompassing a broader range of beings, including humans, plants, animals, mountains, and waters.
- Each "llacta" was seen as a distinct world unto itself, with shared ancestors and relationships with the environment.
- Non-human entities were often considered central members of "llacta," including mummified bodies, springs, caves, and specific animals like the llama.
Ayllu and Collective Labor
- "Ayllu" refers to a kinship group, encompassing both close and extended family members.
- Members of an "ayllu" shared a common ancestor and collective labor, building and maintaining their livelihoods together.
- Collective rituals and ceremonies, like venerating "huacas" and "apus," were essential for the well-being and identity of the "ayllu."
- "Ayllu" membership extended across geographic space and ecological settings, fostering relationships and exchanges between kin groups in different environments.
Huacas and the Power of Material Things
- "Huacas" are nonhuman material things and places that possess the power to act, speak, and affect other beings.
- They could be stones, water springs, caves, buildings, or artifacts, defined by their material forms and exceptional characteristics.
- "Huacas" were not spirits separate from physical substances, but rather embodied beings with power rooted in their material essence.
- Fragmentation of a "huaca" could manifest its power in another place, prompting ongoing offerings and communication.
- "Huacas" were believed to be capable of communication, receiving offerings to incite interaction with human beings.
Huacas and Apis
- Huacas were powerful beings with unique power and histories in Andean cultures.
- Huacas could be mountains, stones, animals, or rivers.
- Huacas were revered and given offerings to fulfill various purposes, such as preventing earthquakes, guaranteeing the health of the Inkas, and ensuring protection.
Mallki
- Mallki were the desiccated or embalmed corpses of respected Andean leaders.
- Mallki corpses were revered and believed to hold the power to speak to both mountains and people.
- Mallki were given offerings of food and drink to appease them.
- Some individuals became Mallki through sacrifice, furthering their connection to the spiritual realm.
Symbolic Boundaries
- Andean communities had distinct cultural practices that played an important role in identifying them.
- These distinguishing factors included clothing styles, headgear, and traditional alcoholic beverages made from various local ingredients like maize and quinoa.
- These customs reflected the diverse material landscapes and cultures of each Andean community, creating a sense of shared identity and cultural differentiation.
Yanantin: Complementary Dualism
- Yanantin is a Quechua concept representing complementary dualism, similar to the Chinese concept "Yin and Yang" (阴阳).
- This concept emphasizes the harmonizing forces that exist in nature, communities, and living beings.
- Examples include the relationship between a man and a woman in a family, and the complementary balance between agricultural fields and animal pastures.
Tinkuy: Convergence and Creation
- Tinkuy is a Quechua verb signifying the convergence of forces or elements, resulting in a new state of affairs.
- Examples include the merging of two rivers, producing fertile alluvial sediments, and the joining of wooden beams to create a supportive roof structure.
- It emphasizes the dynamic interaction of different elements in a community’s social and physical environment.
Inca Imperial Ideology
- The Inka Empire claimed to be divinely ordained to rule, asserting their superiority over other Andean peoples.
- The Inka emperor, recognized as capac, held ultimate authority, exceeding even the power of other apis.
- The Inka ideology emphasized social hierarchy and distinction, asserting their rightful place as the supreme rulers of the Andean world.
Material Manifestations of Power
- The Inka commissioned objects, such as ornate gold and silver ear adornments, to clearly distinguish themselves from other Andean peoples.
- These objects served as symbolic representations of their authority and divine lineage, further solidifying their imperial claims.
Symbolic Objects
- The Inka Korikancha, the house of the sun, housed a gold statue of a boy representing the sun god.
- This statue served as a physical embodiment of the divine connection between Inka rulers and the sun god.
- The concept of ranti, a Quechua term highlighting the substitutive nature of objects, was essential in this context, with objects often embodying or representing something else.
The Role of Objects in Andean Culture
- Objects played a vital role in shaping and defining social relationships and power dynamics within Andean communities.
- The Inka, through the creation and dissemination of these objects, sought to maintain control and legitimacy within their vast empire.
- Objects were imbued with power through ceremonies and rituals involving interactions and exchanges of energy, demonstrating their essential role in maintaining social order and upholding Inka rule.
- The Inka use of objects to reinforce their ideology and assert power reflects the profound interconnection between material culture, social structures, and belief systems in Andean cultures.
Inka Culture and Religious Practices
- Inka culture involved offerings to mountains, water springs, and other natural features known as huacas which were seen as having spiritual significance.
- Mullus (Spondylus crassisquama) were valued offerings to water springs in the Andes.
- The Huanacauri mountain in Cusco, Peru, was a significant place for offerings and requests for protection.
- The Inka philosophy of creation encompassed the participation of different elements.
- The chakitaqlla (tool for preparing ground), maize cob, and urpu (ceramic jug) were used in the process of cultivating and storing maize, an essential food in the Andes.
- The mamasara was a special corn cob used for offerings to ensure a good harvest.
- The sara conopa was a miniature representation of the mamasara used for ritual practice.
- Ñawpa Iglesia is a carved andesite stone dating from the Inka period, which was likely destroyed in an act of colonial iconoclasm.
- Gold and silver were valuable offerings at many huacas in Cusco.
- The huacas were believed to be able to communicate with the Inkas.
- The Inka ruler Thupa Inka chastised huacas that did not perform their duties, as illustrated in Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s manuscript.
- The mummified humans were treated as royal personages and carried in litters during the month of November.
- Inka Art: The design of Inka artistic expressions often reflects the principles of complementary dualism, partitioning objects and spaces into upper (hanan) and lower ( hurin) fields.
- Inka Textiles: Textiles were important objects that differentiated individuals and their social ranks, with different styles and designs associated with specific regions.
Inka Leadership and Material Culture
- The image depicts an Inka wearing gold earspools and directing workers in the construction of a site.
- The Inka culture used "living stones" for construction.
- Inka earspools were made of gold, representing the status of the wearer and the elite.
- Wooden earspools were also common, but especially in the northeastern Andes.
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s Manuscript
- Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s manuscript provides valuable insights into Inka culture and beliefs, covering many aspects of their life and practices.
- The manuscript includes illustrations depicting different aspects of Inka religion, leadership, and daily life including the treatment of mummified humans.
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