Electric Forces and Vector Components

• The lesson covers electric charge, Coulomb's Law, and electric fields.

Electrostatics

• Electrostatics studies phenomena associated with electric charges at rest.

Conductivity

• Conductivity measures how easily an electric charge moves through a material.

Conductors

• Conductors are materials that allow electric charges to flow freely.

Insulators

• Insulators are materials that resist the flow of electric charges.

Semiconductors

• Semiconductors have conductivity intermediate between conductors and insulators.

Doping

• Doping improves semiconductor conductivity by adding different elements to pure semiconductors.

Superconductors

• Superconductors offer practically no resistance to electric charge flow below a critical temperature.
• An example is a material involving hydrogen sulfide, which can conduct charges to -70°C.

Process of Charging

• Neutral atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons.
• Atoms can gain or lose electrons, resulting in a charged atom
• Gaining electrons leads to a negatively charged atom.
• Losing electrons leads to a positively charged atom.

Charging by Friction

• Charging by friction occurs when two neutral bodies are rubbed together.
• The resulting charge (positive or negative) depends on the electron affinity of the materials.

Electron Affinity

• Electron affinity measures an atom's attraction to electrons and tendency to become negatively charged.
• Materials with a higher electron affinity gain electrons from those with lower affinity.

Triboelectric Series

• The triboelectric series ranks materials based on their electron affinity.
• When two materials are rubbed, the one higher on the list becomes positively charged.
• Includes materials like air, human skin, rabbit fur, glass, human hair, nylon, wool, silk, aluminum, paper, cotton, steel, wood, hard rubber, nickel, copper, brass, silver, gold, platinum, acetate, fiber/rayan, polyester, cling film, polyethelene, PVC, silicon and Teflon.

Charging by Conduction

• Charging by conduction needs the physical contact between a charging body and a neutral body.
• The neutral body acquires the same charge as the charging body.
• If the charging body is positively charged, the neutral body becomes positively charged.
• If the charging body is negatively charged, the neutral body acquires a negative charge.

Charging by Induction

• Charging by induction happens when a neutral body becomes charged by being near a charged body
• Negative charges in the neutral body are attracted to a positive charging body
• Negative charges are repelled by a negatively charged body.
• This effect is called polarization
• The neutral body is grounded by touching or using a wire.
• Earth can donate or accept electrons.
• Electrons travel down to the ground if the charging body is negative.
• Electrons will travel up the ground connection if the charging body is positive.
• After removing the ground connection and then the charging body, the previously neutral body has a net charge. -The net charge is opposite of the charging body.

The Electroscope

• The electroscope Determines the electrical charge of a body.
• A Gold Leaf Electroscope consists of a glass case, insulating stopper, metal rod, metal cap, and two thin gold leaves.
• The glass case protects the leaves.
• An electroscope needs an initial charge to determine the charge of another body by conduction or induction.

Coulomb's Law

• Coulomb's Law states that the force between two small charged bodies is directly proportional to the product of the charges
• The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
• The equation is F = kq1q2/r², where F is force, k is a constant of proportionality (9 x 10^9 N.m²/C²), q1 and q2 are electrical charges, and r is the distance.

Superposition Principle

• The Superposition principle says that each charged body exerts force independently.

Capacitor

• A capacitor temporarily Stores energy within a circuit.
• Consists of Two conducting plates facing each other.
• The plates are separated by an insulator called a dielectric.
• The dielectric Impedance the continuous passage of electric current.
• The dielectric stores energy, and releases it later when discharged.

Capacitance Defined

• Capacitance (C) is the ratio of charge (Q) on the conductor to the potential (V) produced.
• Formula: C = Q/V
• Unit of measurement: coulomb per volt or farad (F).

Factors Affecting Capacitance

• Area of the Conducting Plates:
  • Increase in area increases capacitance.
  • Decrease in area decreases capacitance.
• Distance Between Conducting Plates:
  • Increase in distance decreases capacitance.
  • Decrease in distance increases capacitance.
• Type of Dielectric:
  • More conducting dielectric decreases capacitance.
  • Less conducting dielectric increases capacitance.

Parallel-Plate Capacitors

• Involves Two parallel charging plates separated by a dielectric.
• Capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates and inversely proportional to the distance between them.

Cylindrical Capacitors

• Cylindrical capacitors have Inner and outer cylindrical structures corresponding to parallel-plate capacitors.
• A dielectric is placed between the two charged cylinders.
• The capacitance depends on its length; longer length provides higher capacitance.
• Increasing the dielectric increases Capacitance

Spherical Capacitor

• Includes An internal spherical structure and an outer spherical structure that covers the internal sphere.
• A dielectric is placed between the two charged spheres.
• Capacitance varies with its radius; increasing the radius boosts capacitance.

Series Connection

• The Total charge stored is constant throughout the circuit: Qtotal = Q1 = Q2.
• The Total voltage varies and is the equal to the sum of the individual voltages. Vtotal= V1 + V2+ V3.
• The Reciprocal of the total capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual capacitances.

Parallel Connection

• Total charge is the sum of the individual charges: QTotal = Q1 + Q2+ Q3.
• Total voltage is equal and constant throughout: VTotal = V1=V2=V3.
• Total capacitance is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances: CTotal = C1+C2+ C3.

Applications of Capacitance:

• Charged Parallel-Plate Capacitors:
  • The capacitance in a parallel-plate capacitor depends on the area and distance between the charged plates.
  • Formula: C=KE(A/d) where K is the dielectric constant, A is the area of one plate, and d is the distance between plates.

Electrodynamics

• Electrodynamics covers electric current, resistance, and electric circuits

Electric Current

• Electrons move from one point to another due to electric potential energy
• The movement occurs due to the electric field around negative charges
• The velocity of the motion is known as drift velocity

Electric Current Flow

• Electrons move randomly, but regulation to move them continuously in one direction creates electric current
• Drift velocity and electric current are directly proportional
• Higher drift velocity equals higher electric current
• Increased repulsion among electrons increases current density and drift velocity
• Mathematically, electric current is computed as I = q/t, where I is electric current, q is the amount of charge, and t is time
• The unit of current is coulombs per second (C/s) or ampere (A)

Electrical Conductor

• An electrical conductor allows for the free flow of electric current
• Limitation to current flow is referred to as resistance
• Resistance and electric current are inversely proportional, Greater resistance means lower current

Factors Affecting Resistance and Current Flow

• Electrical Resistivity:
  • Increase in resistivity increases resistance and decreases current flow
  • Decrease in resistivity decreases resistance and increases current flow
• Electrical Conductivity:
  • Higher conductivity decreases resistance and increases current flow
  • Lower conductivity increases resistance and decreases current flow
• Temperature:
  • Higher temperature increases resistance and decreases current flow
  • Lower temperature decreases resistance and increases current flow
• Length of Conductor:
  • Longer conductor increases resistance and decreases current flow
  • Shorter conductor decreases resistance and increases current flow
• Cross-sectional Area of Conductor:
  • Higher cross-sectional area decreases resistance and increases current flow
  • Lower cross-sectional area increases resistance and decreases current flow

Electrical Resistivity

• Electrical resistivity describes how a material resists electric current
• Higher electrical resistivity increases resistance and lowers current
• Lower electrical resistivity decreases resistance and increases current

Electrical Conductivity

• Electrical conductivity is the counterpart of electrical resistivity
• Increase in electrical conductivity lowers resistance and increases current flow.

Resistance

• Resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area relate to equivalent resistance: R = ρL/A
  • ρ is resistivity, Lis length, A is cross-sectional area
  • the unit for ρ is ohm-meter (Ω-m)
  • the unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).

Electromotive Force (EMF)

• EMF is the potential energy that causes a unit charge to flow through a conductor or circuit
• EMF Acts like a charge pump and causes charges to flow
• EMF Measured in volts (V).
• EMF Is what the voltage source provides, giving a "push" to electric charges
• Potential Difference (PD) across a circuit is similar to EMF
• PD Is an actual consideration of potentials in the circuit
• The presence of PD identifies the flow of charges
• EMF And PD are measured in volts (V).

Ohm's Law

• Georg Simon Ohm found the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance
• Electricity acts similarly to a water pipe
• Equations is V = IR, relating voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R).

Electric Circuits

• The Current flows along a conductor from source to appliance
• The Pathway for current is an electric circuit.
• Functional circuits must be closed loops.
• Open circuits have gaps and Cannot deliver electric current.
• Schematic diagrams Show components in circuits: wire, power pack, switch, resistor, cell, battery, ammeter, voltmeter, fuse, and light bulb.
• A resistor is an electronic component that is used to provide resistance. –Loads provide resistance to current flow.

Circuit types

• The Components of a circuit can be series or arranged in parallel.

Series Circuits

- Single pathway for current flow
- Current is the same for all components

• Total voltage is the individual voltages added together - Total resistance is the individual resistances added together.

Parallel Circuits

- Branches allow current to pass more than one path
- Voltage is the same across components

• Total current is the sum of individual currents. - Total resistance is less than the individual resistances.

Materials classified

• Circuit components Ohmic or non-ohmic

Ohmic

 - Show  relationship to Ohm's law
 - Use Voltage, current, and resistance in calculations.

Non-Ohmic

• Do not obey Ohm's law directly
• Examples: bulb filaments and semiconductors.

Electric Energy

• Circuits facilitate the delivery of electrical energy
• Equipment converts energy electrical to work and other forms
• Governed by law of conservation of energy

Rate of Conversion

• Rate of Conversion of Energy to other sources is electric power -Computed using the equation: P = VI, where P is electric power, V is voltage, and I is current

Alternate Form

• Using Ohm's Law to involves internal resistance (R): P = V²/R
• Indicates Power lost due to resistance
• Measured in watts (W). Heat Generation from Electric Current
• Generated by circuit component with resistance
• Impedes current flow, converts energy to heat

Amount of Heat Generated

• Amount of Heat per second Is computed as: Heat (J) / second = I²R (J) represents The current in the circuit and R is the resistance.

Electric Shock

• Electric energy can be both Beneficial and hazardous
• Improper use causes harm or death.
• Addressing Electrical is achieved by grounding efficiently.
• Electrical Grounding uses wires from Circuitry touching the ground.

Circuitry Applications

• Circuits Provide pathway for electrical energy conversion.
• Batteries, light bulbs, music players, and gaming use electrical energy from a source.

Light Bulbs

• Use The Simplest is light bulb circuitry.
• Use Batteries connected the light bulbs via connectors.

Household Wiring

-Best visualization for electrical circuits -Circuit usage can be optimized with electrical knowledge.

Fuses

-Fuses Allow certain current; excess burns it protecting circuitry.

• Fuses are Safer with small fuses is safer than large ones
• Correct Fuse selected avoid electrical damage.

electromagnetism

• Magnetism is the ability of a magnetic material to attract other magnetic materials - Materials like iron, nickel, cobalt, and steel are magnetic. Wood, paper, and glass are nonmagnetic

Magnetism in portions

- Poles are Portions of a magnet with greatest magnetic force
   - North pole points to north.

Magnetization Process

- Making material Temporarily or permanently magnetic
   - Types stroking with a magnet, passing electric through it, or induction Earth's magnetism

magnetic materials classified

- Materials classified based on reaction when field is Applied to them

-Ferromagnetic strongly attracted

• Examples Are iron, cobalt, and nickel -Paramagnetic weakly attracted -Examples Transition metals, require cooling -Diamagnetic-weakly repel -Examples metals, nonmentals water

Magnetic forces and magnetic fields

- Magnetic Field Is a region where magnetic force is exerted
- This Applies To moving charges, such as the charges of a magnet in motion

Charged particle's relation the force

- Force On particle is charges of particle multiplied by velocity and magnetic field

Electromagnetic Induction

- Producing Induced from change in magnetic flux described by FARADAY Conducted Experiments

• Induction In coil
• Induction Occurs when voltage change

Faradays laws of electromagnetism

• Induced Electromotive Force is equal to rate of change of magnetic flux -Induction In terms of Number of turns: & = N ^ ^ / +

Lenz's Law

- Formula: e=-N(ΔΦ/Δt)

• Negative Sign Demotes Lenz's Law - Current direction from Changing magnetic field opposes inducing field

This content explores the component method of vector addition in the context of electric forces. It discusses how changes in charge and distance affect the magnitude and direction of forces. Scenarios involving symmetry, angles, and dielectric fluids are also considered.