90 Questions
What type of cognitive processes, according to the study, contributed to students' learning outcomes?
Higher-order cognitive processes (elaboration and organization sequences)
What are the two main explanation formats mentioned in the text?
Oral and Textual explanation formats
What is the focus of the authors' study regarding students' explanatory processes?
Effects on learning outcomes
What question arises regarding the different explanation formats mentioned?
Whether they differently contribute to cognitive processes and learning outcomes
Which cognitive processes were found to be primarily related to students' learning outcomes?
Elaboration and organization sequences
What were lower-order cognitive processes that were not related to students' learning outcomes?
Paraphrasing
What was the duration of the short demographic questionnaire?
5 minutes
How long did it take to complete the pretest assessing conceptual knowledge about internal combustion engines?
8 minutes
How long did the learning phase, where students studied the hypertext, last?
30 minutes
What did the students do after completing the learning phase?
Plan their explanation for 7 minutes
What were the students asked to do during the learning phase in terms of taking notes?
Take notes on a separate sheet
What did outlining during the planning phase aim to scaffold for the students?
Organization processes
How did the modality of explaining (written vs oral) affect students' acquisition of conceptual knowledge?
It had no differential effect on students' acquisition of conceptual knowledge.
Which type of explanation (written or oral) was more effective in helping students acquire transferable knowledge?
Providing oral explanations was more effective in helping students acquire transferable knowledge.
What factor mediated the effect of explanation modality on students' transfer?
The amount of students' elaborations mediated the effect of explanation modality on students' transfer.
What was the average transfer performance like in the study?
The average transfer performance was rather low.
What type of transfer tasks were used in the study?
Challenging transfer tasks that required students to reinterpret previously encountered information.
What were the learning outcomes of the study affected by?
The learning outcomes were affected by the modality of explaining (written vs oral).
What did the authors find regarding the participants and the syntactical primes?
The participants were affected only by the syntactical primes and not by the modality of the primes.
According to research, what is a key difference between oral and written discourse?
The affordances of writing and speaking can be regarded as very different.
What does the nonspontaneous character of writing allow students to do?
It allows students to get more opportunities to externalize their ideas and carefully reflect upon their thoughts.
How can rereading and revising written explanations benefit students?
Rereading and revising written explanations may stimulate students to identify essential concepts, establish links between concepts, and thoroughly organize the subject-matter.
What is advocated in research on pragmatic linguistics regarding oral and written discourse?
Research advocates taking the contextual character of oral and written discourse into account.
What do linguistic differences between oral and written discourse imply?
Linguistic differences imply that writing and speaking have different contextual characters.
How did oral explanations impact students' transferable knowledge?
Oral explanations fostered students' transferable knowledge by triggering an increase in vividness of explanations with illustrative examples.
What was the difference in learning materials between the study by Hoogerheide et al. and the current study?
The study by Hoogerheide et al. used low-element-interactivity learning material about syllogistic reasoning, while the current study used more complex learning materials.
Why are the findings about students' learning in the text considered particularly interesting?
The findings are interesting because they contradict a previous study by Hoogerheide et al. that showed oral and written explanations to be comparably effective for acquiring direct procedural knowledge.
What type of learning material is considered high-element interactivity in the text?
Learning the functions and processes of internal combustion engines is considered high-element interactivity material.
How did Hoogerheide et al.'s study differ from the current study in terms of learning material complexity?
Hoogerheide et al.'s study used rather low-element-interactivity learning material, while the current study used more complex materials.
What was the key difference in the effects of oral explanations between the two studies mentioned in the text?
In the study by Hoogerheide et al., oral explanations and written explanations were comparably effective for acquiring procedural knowledge, but had no further effects on students' transfer of such procedures.
What were the two different formats in which students could provide explanations in the study?
Oral or written
What was the duration of the explanation phase in the study?
15 minutes
What specific tool did students use in the written explanation condition to type their instructional explanations?
Text editor provided in LimeSurvey software
How did students generate their oral explanations in the study?
Students were asked to provide an oral explanation in front of a computer screen displaying their notes.
What test did students complete first after the explanation phase?
Subjective cognitive load assessment
Why did the researchers decide to provide students first with the conceptual knowledge test followed by the transfer test?
To align the test procedure with students’ transfer processes
What were the main differences found between oral and written artifacts in Chafe's study?
Written artifacts were less fragmented and better structured than oral artifacts. Speaking triggered higher levels of social involvement expressed by a higher use of first-person and second-person pronouns.
How did Redeker's study replicate Chafe's findings regarding oral and written discourse?
Redeker found that oral discourse had higher levels of social involvement but lower organization compared to written discourse.
What did Redeker ask participants to do in his study to compare oral and written formats?
Redeker asked participants to generate explanations or narrations in either oral or written format.
What was the impact of oral discourse on social involvement according to the studies by Chafe and Redeker?
Oral discourse triggered higher levels of social involvement.
How did Redeker control the experimental conditions in his study comparing oral and written discourse?
Redeker ensured the number of prior planning activities was constant across conditions.
What was the key difference in students' engagement levels between oral and written discourse according to the studies?
Oral discourse triggered higher levels of social involvement compared to written discourse.
How was the level of organization of explanations assessed in the study?
Using a rating scheme developed by N€ uckles et al. (2009) on four dimensions.
What are the four dimensions on which the organization of explanations was rated?
Global structure, differentiation between relevant and irrelevant points, consistency of presentation, and local cohesion.
Why is assessing the level of organization more suitable at the molar level rather than the molecular level?
The level of organization is a holistic feature of texts that can be better evaluated on the entire text level.
What was rated to determine whether the arguments in the explanations were sufficiently connected to enhance readability?
Local cohesion.
Who developed the rating scheme used to assess the level of organization in the study?
N€ uckles et al. (2009).
What did the study focus on when rating the level of organization in students' explanations?
Global structure, relevance differentiation, presentation consistency, and local cohesion.
What ethical guidelines were followed in the study?
1964 Helsinki declaration and DGPS ethical guidelines
When is approval from an institutional review board required for experimental studies?
When participants are exposed to high emotional or physical stress, or when not informed about the study goals and procedures.
Who helped with coding the data in the study?
Iris Backfisch
Which journal published the study about the effects of self-explaining with text or diagrams?
Cognitive Science
What cognitive benefits were discussed in the study by Bargh and Schul (1980)?
Benefits of teaching
What type of explanations were found to be more effective in helping students acquire transferable knowledge?
Oral explanations
What is the main focus of the study by Berthold and Renkl (2009)?
Instructional aids to support a conceptual understanding of multiple representations
What concept is explored in Chafe's (1982) work?
Integration and involvement in speaking, writing, and oral literature
What effects are investigated in Chen, Kalyuga, and Sweller's (2015) study?
The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity
What did Chi et al. (2001) focus on in their research?
Learning from human tutoring
What is the main focus of the study by Chin et al. (2010)?
Preparing students for future learning with teachable agents
What is the focus of Cleland and Pickering's (2006) investigation?
Do writing and speaking employ the same syntactic representations?
Which experimental condition was found to be comparably effective at providing explanations according to the study?
Writing explanations
In terms of transferable knowledge, which modality of explanation was found to be more effective?
Oral explanation
What was the statistical significance found in the comparison of students' posttest scores between oral and written explanation conditions?
Not significant (p = .19)
What type of test was used to compare students' performance on the transfer test?
Independent t test
What was the effect size (Cohen's d) for the comparison of students' transfer scores between oral and written explanations?
0.67
What was the p-value associated with the comparison of students' transfer scores between oral and written explanations?
.03
What cognitive processes are triggered by the act of explaining, according to theories of generative learning?
Selecting relevant information, organizing information in a coherent manner, providing concrete examples or analogies, elaboration
How does explaining contribute to the explainer's generative learning, according to Fiorella and Mayer (2015)?
Explaining helps structure learning material coherently and integrate new information with existing knowledge for deep understanding
What type of cognitive benefits are discussed in the study by Roscoe and Chi (2008) regarding explaining?
Generative learning, structuring learning material, deep understanding
What are the distinct processes that explaining generally requires students to engage in?
Selecting relevant information, organizing coherently, providing examples or analogies, elaboration
What are the main cognitive processes that contribute to the explainer's deep understanding, as mentioned by Fiorella and Mayer (2015)?
Organization and elaboration
According to theories of generative learning, what are the key cognitive processes triggered by the act of explaining?
Selecting relevant information, organizing coherently, providing examples or analogies, elaboration
How can written explanations benefit students' conceptual understanding according to the text?
Better organized explanations
What aspect of oral explanations can encourage students to enrich their explanations?
Social involvement
Why are elaborations in oral explanations considered helpful for students?
For linking learning content to prior knowledge
What did the study by Hoogerheide et al. examine regarding explanations' effects on students?
Application and transfer of procedural knowledge
What is scarce in empirical studies when comparing the effects of written versus oral explanations?
Studies directly examining the effects
What is the focus of Fiorella & Mayer's research regarding learning-by-explaining approaches?
Transferable knowledge
What online measures are suggested for future studies to assess cognitive mechanisms of explaining?
Think-aloud protocols or log-file data
What is a limitation mentioned in the text regarding the effects of students’ expectancy to explain orally versus in written form?
The design did not allow to disentangle the effects
What is suggested for future research in terms of sample sizes and generalizability of findings?
Use larger sample sizes
What aspect of students' abilities was not assessed prior to the study and could have impacted the effects of explanation modality?
Reading and writing skills
What factors should future research consider treating as independent factors in an expanded study design?
Explanation modality, explanation expectancy, and actual act of explaining
What type of study design is suggested for future research to assess the effects of explanation modality?
An expanded study design
What is the main focus of the study by Berthold and Renkl (2009)?
Instructional aids to support a conceptual understanding of multiple representations
How did Hoogerheide et al.'s study differ from the current study in terms of learning material complexity?
Hoogerheide et al.'s study used more complex learning materials compared to the current study.
What was the key difference in students' engagement levels between oral and written discourse according to the studies?
Students were more engaged in oral discourse compared to written discourse.
Which type of explanation (written or oral) was more effective in helping students acquire transferable knowledge?
Written explanations were more effective in helping students acquire transferable knowledge.
What was the key difference in the effects of oral explanations between the two studies mentioned in the text?
The effects of oral explanations differed in terms of social involvement.
What was the impact of oral discourse on social involvement according to the studies by Chafe and Redeker?
Oral discourse had a positive impact on social involvement.
Explore the impact of students' explanatory processes on their learning outcomes based on a study analyzing the effects of explanation on learning basic functions and structures of the human eye. Discover how higher-order cognitive processes like elaboration and organization sequences influence learning more than lower-order processes like paraphrasing.
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