Economics Chapter: Demand and Market
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Questions and Answers

What occurs when the price of a substitute good increases?

  • Demand for the substitute increases (correct)
  • Demand for the substitute decreases
  • Demand for the conditional increases
  • Demand for the complement increases

How does an increase in consumer income typically affect the demand for normal goods?

  • Demand remains constant
  • Demand falls
  • Demand becomes unpredictable
  • Demand increases (correct)

What best describes the law of supply?

  • Supply is independent of price
  • Supply increases as price rises (correct)
  • Supply decreases as price rises
  • Supply remains unchanged with price changes

What is meant by the term 'equilibrium price'?

<p>The price at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors can cause a shift in demand?

<p>Change in consumer preferences (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the demand curve when there is a rightward shift?

<p>Demand increases at every price (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a market with absolute advantage?

<p>Higher efficiency in resource usage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of technological advancements on supply?

<p>Supply increases due to lower costs and improved productivity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when a flat tax is imposed on a good?

<p>The supply curve shifts to the left, leading to a reduction in equilibrium quantity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributes to the emergence of a natural monopoly?

<p>Low production costs as output increases. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a monopolist's marginal revenue behave compared to the price they sell their product for?

<p>Marginal revenue is lower than the selling price. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'price discrimination' refer to?

<p>Selling identical products at different prices to different customers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which of the following market structures can firms differentiate their products?

<p>Imperfect competition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of inelastic supply and demand on tax revenue collection?

<p>It maximizes total tax revenue. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of firms under monopoly compared to competitive firms?

<p>Monopolies have complete control over their pricing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary way a government can regulate monopolies?

<p>Setting pricing policies for essential services. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines market power?

<p>The capability of firms to affect the market price of their product. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a market reaches efficient equilibrium?

<p>Total surplus is maximized for all market participants. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between explicit costs and implicit costs?

<p>Explicit costs require out-of-pocket payments, while implicit costs are opportunity costs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is economic profit calculated?

<p>Total revenue minus both explicit and implicit costs. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes diminishing marginal product?

<p>After a certain point, adding more variable inputs leads to less additional output. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for a firm to operate at its efficient scale?

<p>The quantity of output minimizes average total cost. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies a price floor?

<p>A minimum wage is established at $15 per hour. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of economies of scale?

<p>The average total cost decreases with increased production. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the term 'sunk costs'?

<p>Costs that cannot be recovered and are already incurred. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the producer surplus measure?

<p>The extra amount that a producer receives above the minimum price they would accept. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept describes resources being allocated efficiently?

<p>Total surplus is maximized when value meets cost. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly defines opportunity cost?

<p>The cost of the second-best alternative forgone. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of perfect price discrimination?

<p>It aligns price with each consumer's willingness to pay. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of goods are both rival and non-excludable?

<p>Common resources (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically happens in a perfectly competitive market in the long run?

<p>Price is driven to marginal cost of production. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary consequence of negative externalities?

<p>Markets produce less than the socially desirable quantity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Nash equilibrium represent in game theory?

<p>A situation in which players have no incentive to change their strategy. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What results from the free-rider problem?

<p>Underfunding of public goods. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of monopolistic markets?

<p>Firms are price makers with the power to set prices. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following goods is classified as non-rival and non-excludable?

<p>Air (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which strategy is characterized as a dominant strategy in game theory?

<p>A strategy preferred regardless of the opponent’s action. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the marginal revenue curve in a monopoly compared to a perfectly competitive market?

<p>It is twice as steep as the demand curve. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when marginal utility minus marginal cost is greater than zero?

<p>Quantity demanded should be maximized. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between normative and positive statements?

<p>Positive statements describe facts, whereas normative statements reflect values or opinions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines comparative advantage?

<p>Lowest opportunity cost of producing a good compared to others. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the supply curve shifts to the left, what typically occurs to the equilibrium price and quantity?

<p>Equilibrium price increases while equilibrium quantity decreases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'ceteris paribus' imply?

<p>All other factors are held constant. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to supply when input prices rise?

<p>Supply decreases and shifts to the left. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does price elasticity of demand measure?

<p>The responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in price. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If total revenue equals total cost, what is the economic profit?

<p>Zero. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does marginal cost initially decrease with increased production?

<p>Because of benefits from economies of scale. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes perfectly elastic supply?

<p>Supply responds significantly to slight changes in price. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an explicit cost?

<p>Out-of-pocket expenses directly tied to production. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the law of diminishing returns affect production?

<p>Adding more variable inputs to fixed inputs leads to decreased additional output. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What results from economies of scale?

<p>Lower average total costs as production increases. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula for average total cost (ATC)?

<p>Total cost divided by quantity produced. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Competitive Market

A market where many buyers and sellers participate, and no single entity can influence prices.

Quantity Demanded

The amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase at a specific price.

Law of Demand

The relationship where the quantity demanded of a good decreases as its price increases, and vice versa, keeping all other factors constant.

Demand Schedule

A table showing the relationship between different prices and the corresponding quantities demanded.

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Demand Curve

A graph showing the relationship between price and quantity demanded, with price on the vertical axis and quantity on the horizontal axis.

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Absolute Advantage

The ability of a company to produce a good or service using fewer resources than any other competitor.

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Competitive Advantage

The ability of a company to produce goods or services at a lower opportunity cost compared to competitors.

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Equilibrium Price

The point where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, resulting in a stable price.

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Implicit Costs

The cost of resources already owned by the firm, like using the owner's own office for business instead of renting one.

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Opportunity Cost

The value of the best alternative that must be given up in order to take an action or make a choice.

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Explicit Costs

Direct, out-of-pocket payments for resources employed in production.

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Efficient Scale

The quantity of output that minimizes average total cost.

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Constant Returns to Scale

When doubling the inputs also doubles the outputs.

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Internal Economies of Scale

The advantages of a large-scale production due to internal factors like efficiency, specialisation, and better management.

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External Economies of Scale

The advantages of a large-scale production gained from external factors like clusters of firms and infrastructure.

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Marginal Revenue

The change in total revenue from an additional unit sold.

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Economic Profit

The firm's total revenue minus all opportunity costs (implicit and explicit).

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Normal Profit

The minimum level of profit required for a company to remain in business.

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Marginal Cost

The cost of producing one additional unit of a good. It's calculated by dividing the change in total costs by the change in quantity produced.

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Normative Statement

A statement that describes what should be, based on opinions and values. It often includes words like 'should', 'ought', or 'better'.

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Positive Statement

A statement that describes what is, based on facts and evidence. It focuses on measurable and verifiable observations.

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Comparative Advantage

The ability of a producer to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost compared to other producers. It means they can produce a good or service more efficiently, giving up fewer other goods or services.

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Price Floor

A situation where a government sets a minimum price for a particular good or service. This price cannot be lowered, even by market forces.

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Price Ceiling

A situation where a government sets a maximum price for a particular good or service. This price cannot be exceeded, even by market forces.

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Elasticity

The responsiveness of one variable to a change in another. It is the percentage change in one variable divided by the percentage change in another variable.

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Price Elasticity of Demand

The responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. It is the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price.

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Price Elasticity of Supply

The responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in price. It is the percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in price.

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Economies of Scale

The cost advantage that a firm experiences as it increases its production. This leads to a decrease in the average total cost per unit.

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Diseconomies of Scale

The situation when a company grows too large, causing inefficiencies that increase the average total cost. This happens when increasing production leads to higher costs per unit.

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Law of Diminishing Returns

A situation where the marginal cost increases with increased production. This is due to diminishing returns, where adding more variable inputs to fixed inputs leads to smaller increases in output.

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Perfect Price Discrimination

When a producer knows exactly how much each consumer is willing to pay for a product and charges them accordingly.

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Non-rival Goods

Goods that can be consumed by one person without preventing another person from consuming them.

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Excludable Goods

Goods that can be prevented from being consumed by those who don't pay for them.

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Private Goods

Goods that are both rival and excludable, meaning they can be consumed by only one person at a time and those who don't pay can be excluded from consuming them.

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Public Goods

Goods that are both non-rival and non-excludable, meaning they can be enjoyed by many people simultaneously and those who don't pay can't be prevented from enjoying them.

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Free-rider Problem

When individuals consume a public good without contributing to its cost, benefiting from the contributions of others.

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Tragedy of the Commons

When a resource that is not excludable is overused by individuals acting in their own self-interest, leading to its depletion or degradation.

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Externality

A cost or benefit that is not reflected in the market price of a good or service, affecting people who are not directly involved in the transaction.

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Overproduction (Negative Externalities)

When a market produces more of a good than is socially desirable due to negative externalities.

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Underproduction (Positive Externalities)

When a market produces less of a good than is socially desirable due to positive externalities.

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Market Power

The ability of an individual or firm to influence prices. This occurs when there are few substitutes for the product and the firm holds significant market share. Even if a company raises its price, consumers may still choose its product due to a lack of viable alternatives.

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Externalities

The impact of a transaction on individuals or transactions that are not directly involved. These effects can be either positive (benefiting others, e.g., a beautiful garden in your neighborhood) or negative (harming others, e.g., pollution from a factory).

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Monopoly

The situation where a single firm is the sole seller of a product without close substitutes. In reality, a firm is considered to have monopoly power if it dominates the market.

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Barriers to Entry

Barriers that prevent firms from entering a market or industry. These barriers could include control over key resources, government-granted exclusive rights, or the presence of significant economies of scale.

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Natural Monopoly

A type of monopoly that arises when a company can produce and supply a good to the entire market at a lower cost compared to having multiple firms. This often occurs due to economies of scale.

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Price Discrimination

The practice of charging different customers different prices for the same product, even though the cost of production is the same. Firms aim to capture a customer's willingness to pay.

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Arbitrage

The buying of a product at a lower price in one market and selling it at a higher price in another market, taking advantage of price differences and generating a profit.

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Profit Maximisation for a Monopoly

The point where a monopoly maximizes its profit. This occurs when the marginal cost (the cost of producing an additional unit) equals the marginal revenue (the additional revenue from selling an additional unit).

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Long-Run Costs

The concept that all costs become variable in the long run, meaning a firm can adjust its production level to match changing market conditions. This contrasts with the short run, where some costs are fixed.

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Efficiency

The effectiveness of resource allocation in maximizing total welfare for all members of society. This occurs when the market reaches equilibrium, where the price reflects the value both producers and consumers place on the product.

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Study Notes

Competitive Markets

  • Competitive markets are characterized by numerous buyers and sellers, where no single participant influences prices.

Quantity Demanded

  • Quantity demanded refers to the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase at a given price.

Law of Demand

  • Holding other factors constant, quantity demanded decreases as price rises and increases as price falls.

Demand Schedule

  • A table illustrating the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded.

Demand Curve

  • A graphical representation of the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded.

Absolute Advantage

  • A company has absolute advantage when it produces a good or service more efficiently than any other competitor using the same amount of resources.

Competitive Advantage

  • A company has a competitive advantage when it produces goods or services with the lowest opportunity costs compared to competitors.

Movement vs. Shift of Demand Curve

  • Movement along the demand curve is caused by changes in price.
  • Shift of the demand curve is caused by non-price factors.

Non-Price Factors Affecting Demand

  • Income:
    • Normal goods: demand increases with income.
    • Inferior goods: demand decreases with income.
  • Preferences: Consumer tastes and inclinations.
  • Expectations about future price changes:
  • Advertising: Promotional efforts influencing consumer demand.
  • Related goods:
    • Substitute goods: demand for one increases when the price of the other increases.
    • Complementary goods: demand for one decreases when the price of the other increases.

Law of Supply

  • The higher the price, the more producers are willing to supply, and vice versa.

Factors Influencing Supply

  • Natural and social factors: Weather, natural disasters, social trends.
  • Technology: Increases productivity and reduces costs, shifting supply to the right.
  • Number of sellers: More sellers, more supply.

Equilibrium Price and Quantity

  • Equilibrium price: the price at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.
  • Equilibrium quantity: the amount bought and sold at the equilibrium price.

Utility

  • Diminishing marginal utility: The additional satisfaction (utility) received from consuming one more unit of a good decreases as consumption increases.
  • Maximizing utility: Consume goods up to the point where marginal utility equals marginal cost.

Normative vs. Positive Statements

  • Normative statements express opinions or value judgments (e.g., "taxes should be higher").
  • Positive statements are based on facts and can be tested (e.g., "higher taxes lead to reduced consumer spending").

Opportunity Cost

  • Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative forgone when making a choice.

Comparative Advantage vs. Absolute Advantage

  • Comparative advantage exists when a person or firm has a lower opportunity cost for producing a good or service compared to others, even if they possess absolute advantage in both areas.

Ceteris Paribus

  • The assumption of holding all other relevant factors constant when analyzing the relationship between two variables.

Elasticity

  • Measures the responsiveness of one variable to changes in another.
  • Price elasticity of demand (Ed): Measures how quantity demanded responds to a change in price.
    • Ed < 1: Inelastic demand
    • Ed = 1: Unit elastic demand
  • Price elasticity of supply (Es): Measures how quantity supplied responds to a change in price.

Price Controls: Price Ceiling & Price Floor

  • Price ceiling: A maximum legal price, often leading to shortages.
  • Price floor: A minimum legal price, often leading to surpluses.

Short Run vs. Long Run Costs

  • Short run: some inputs are fixed, while others are variable.
  • Long run: all inputs are variable.

Economies of Scale

  • Cost advantages that firms experience as they increase production, leading to lower average total costs.
  • Factors leading to economies of scale: Specialization, bulk purchasing, operational efficiency, technology.

Diseconomies of Scale

  • Occur when a company becomes too large, leading to inefficiencies and increased average total costs.
  • Factors leading to diseconomies of scale: Coordination problems, communication breakdowns, reduced worker motivation.

Average Total Cost (ATC), Marginal Cost (MC), Marginal Product

  • ATC: Total cost divided by quantity of output.
  • MC: Change in total cost from producing one more unit.
  • Marginal product: Increase in output from adding one more unit of labor.

Law of Diminishing Returns

  • Marginal cost rises as production increases, while marginal product falls.

Profit Maximization

  • Profit is maximized when marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Explicit + Implicit costs should be considered.

Explicit vs. Implicit Costs

  • Explicit Costs: Direct, out-of-pocket payments for resources (wages, rent, raw materials).
  • Implicit Costs: Opportunity costs of resources already owned by the firm (e.g., forgone salary, forgone investment earnings)

Sunk Costs

  • Costs that have already been incurred and cannot be recovered; should be ignored when making decisions.

Allocative Efficiency

  • Resources are allocated in a way that maximizes the value of the output according to consumer willingness to pay and seller costs.

Consumer Surplus & Producer Surplus

  • Consumer surplus: The difference between the maximum price a consumer is willing to pay and the actual market price.
  • Producer surplus: The difference between the market price and the minimum price at which a producer is willing to supply.

Total Surplus

  • The sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus.

Taxation: Specific Taxes & VAT

  • Specific taxes: Fixed amount per unit of a good.
  • VAT (Ad Valorem Tax): Percentage of the good's price.

Monopoly and Market Structures

  • Monopoly: A firm that is the sole seller of a product without close substitutes.
  • Barriers to entry: Factors preventing new firms from entering an industry.
  • Natural monopoly: A firm that can supply the entire market at a lower cost than two or more firms due to economies of scale.
  • Marginal revenue (MR): Change in total revenue from selling one more unit. For a monopolist, MR is always less than the price.

Price Discrimination

  • Charging different prices to different customers for the same product.

Public Goods

  • Non-rivalrous (one person's consumption doesn't reduce another's) and non-excludable (difficult to prevent people from consuming).
  • Free-rider problem: People can consume a public good without paying for it.

Externalities

  • Costs or benefits imposed on third parties not involved in a transaction.
  • Negative externality: Market produces more than socially desirable (e.g., pollution).
  • Positive externality: Market produces less than socially desirable(e.g., education).

Perfect Competition

  • A market structure with many firms selling identical products, no barriers to entry or exit, price-taking firms (no impact on market price), and MR=P, MC=P.

Market Power

  • Ability of a firm to influence the price of a good or service.

Game Theory

  • Used to analyze strategic interactions between firms or individuals.

Dominant Strategy and Nash Equilibrium

  • Dominant strategy: A strategy that is always best for a player regardless of what the opponent does.
  • Nash equilibrium: An outcome where no player has an incentive to change their strategy given what the others are doing.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in competitive markets, including quantity demanded, the law of demand, and the differences between absolute and competitive advantage. Test your understanding of how demand interacts with price and market dynamics.

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