Ecological and Processual Approaches in Archaeology

Motivations for Studying the Past

• Questions about the past arise from curiosity and the desire to understand origins.
• Myths, cultures, and ethnogenesis are built upon these inquiries, providing a framework for understanding reality.
• Often, interpretations are anchored in historical facts, migration, and cultural narratives.

Antiquarianism and Early Archaeological Approaches

• Antiquarianism, driven by exploration and collection, characterized early approaches to studying the past.
• Early studies involved collecting artifacts from diverse cultures and attempting to understand their significance.

Stonehenge and the Evolution of Archaeological Thought

• Initial interpretations of Stonehenge were flawed, with some early scholars believing it was a Roman construction, which was later disproved.
• Careful study of Stonehenge, particularly by William Stukeley, led to the realization of its astronomical alignments and its association with the Druids.

Early Excavations and the Moundbuilder Myth

• Systematic excavation of sites like Pompeii (since 1738) and "Indian mounds" (19th century) marked significant milestones.
• The "Moundbuilder myth," a belief that Native American cultures did not construct complex mounds, was debunked by Thomas Jefferson, who used stratigraphy and logical reasoning to challenge prevailing theories.

Influencing Disciplines and Concepts

• Uniformitarianism – geological processes that existed in the past are still at work; meaning that the ancient world is subject to similar laws and processes to the modern world.
• Law of superposition – lower layers are older than upper layers.
• Concept of evolution – biological and cultural change over time. Humans have a deep history that predates recorded religious teachings if one were to adhere to an evolutionary perspective.
• Cultural evolution – The concept of the Three-Age system (Stone, Bronze, Iron), which provided a means to classify and categorize various cultures.

Influences from Exploration, Colonialism, and Comparative Studies

• Exploration and colonialism led to the recording of diverse indigenous cultures, enabling comparative analysis and broadening the perspective on interpretations of the archaeological record.
• This broadened the range of cultures interpreted.
• Classifications of civilizations based on technology and social organization impacted research methodologies.

Development of Field Archaeology

• Advances emphasized meticulous recording, including stratigraphy, site plans, and grid systems.
• Key figures shaping the field include Leopoldo Batres (early Mexican archaeology but criticized methodology) , Julio Tello (Andean chronology), and Gertrude Caton-Thompson (pioneering female archaeologist and all-woman research teams).
• Important figures developed tools and methodologies for accurate excavations and interpretations (e.g. ,Henri Breuil, Dorothy Garrod, Alfred V. Kidder).

Different Types of Archaeology

• Prehistoric archaeology (non-historical): Studies ancient cultures lacking written records.
• Historical archaeology: Explores cultures with written records.
• Classificatory-Historical Approach: Aims to create timelines of cultural change by identifying artifact types associated with specific time periods, and to associate those findings to behaviors of ancient peoples
• Archaeological sciences: Utilize scientific methods like radiocarbon dating, and computational methods to gather and interpret data.

Processual (New) Archaeology

• Focuses on understanding the processes that shape societies.
• Emphasizes the testing of hypotheses and the use of experimental and ethnoarchaeological approaches.
• Relies on advanced methodology to gain better insight into the past (e.g., Lewis Binford).

Post-Processual Critique

• Emphasizes human agency and cultural context in interpreting archaeological data. It is a critique of the assumption that cultures or human behaviors can be understood from only logical principles without consideration of inherent cultural influences or agency.
• Recognizes the limitations of purely logical or environmental models for cultural interpretation.

Gender Archaeology and Feminist Critiques

• Early approaches were frequently influenced by heteronormative white male perspectives, creating bias.
• Modern approaches emphasize recognizing and accounting for gender and cultural influences in archaeological analysis.

Structuralism and Practice Theory

• Emphasizes relationships between cultural elements and broader structures.
• Incorporates both agency and larger cultural structures in interpretation.

Archaeology Beyond Academia, and Cultural Resource Management

• Archaeological findings often influence policies and decisions related to cultural heritage.
• Archaeological research is now interwoven with modern life issues, including economic constraints, and even ethical discussions and activism.

Archaeology and Indigenous Knowledge

• Increased collaboration with indigenous communities and research approaches adapted from indigenous cultures.
• Use of both indigenous and scientific epistemologies within archaeological studies.