Earth & Space Science Introduction Chapter
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Questions and Answers

What is the main focus of physical geology?

  • Establishing a chronological order of physical and biological changes
  • Studying the materials composing Earth (correct)
  • Integrating chemistry, physics, and biology to study the oceans
  • Examining the origin of Earth

    • What percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans?

  • 50%
  • 71% (correct)
  • 60%
  • 80%

    • What is the term used to describe the average weather conditions over a long period of time?

  • Weather
  • Climate (correct)
  • Meteorology
  • Atmosphere

    • What is the study of the universe, which provides an understanding of Earth's place in the universe?

    <p>Astronomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the dynamic mass of water that is continually on the move, from the oceans to the atmosphere and back to the land?

    <p>Hydrosphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of the Earth's core?

    <p>Iron-nickel alloy with minor amounts of oxygen, silicon, and sulfur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average density of the Earth's core?

    <p>11 g/cm3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the thickness of the Earth's outer core?

    <p>2,270 km</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two power sources of the Earth system?

    <p>The energy from the sun and the Earth's internal energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the geologic time scale?

    <p>To divide the Earth's history into different units</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of freshwater in the Earth's hydrosphere?

    <p>It is much more important than its percentage in the Earth's water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would be the consequence if the Earth did not have an atmosphere?

    <p>Life would not exist on Earth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the biosphere, in terms of the Earth's spheres?

    <p>The part of the Earth where all life exists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the solid Earth, in terms of the Earth's spheres?

    <p>The part of the Earth that lies beneath the atmosphere and oceans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the nonliving influences that surround and affect an organism?

    <p>Physical environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of science?

    <p>To discover the patterns in nature and make predictions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of a mineral?

    <p>A naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses a definite chemical structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the positive particle that makes up part of an atom's nucleus?

    <p>Proton</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe a bond formed by the sharing of valence electrons?

    <p>Covalent Bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe atoms that are electrically charged?

    <p>Ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of a mineral that is used to distinguish it from other minerals?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral?

    <p>Luster</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the streak test in identifying minerals?

    <p>To identify the color of a mineral in its powdered form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the internal arrangement of atoms in a mineral?

    <p>Orderly internal structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the scale used to measure the hardness of a mineral?

    <p>Mohs Scale of Hardness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between cleavage and crystal form?

    <p>Cleavage is the breaking of a mineral into smaller pieces, while crystal form is its external shape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of measurement for density?

    <p>Grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the weight of a mineral compared to an equal volume of water?

    <p>Specific gravity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of silicate minerals that allows them to bond to positively charged ions?

    <p>The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron has a net charge of -4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the scale used to determine mineral hardness?

    <p>Mohs Scale of Hardness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the specific gravity range of olivine and garnet?

    <p>3.2 to 4.4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines which silicate minerals form during crystallization?

    <p>The environment during crystallization and chemical composition of the molten material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most abundant mineral group?

    <p>Silicates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of quartz that makes it very hard and resistant to weathering?

    <p>The sharing of oxygen by adjacent silicon atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common characteristic of light silicate minerals?

    <p>They have a specific gravity of about 2.7</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the dark silicate minerals?

    <p>They have a higher specific gravity than the light silicates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process that results in the formation of igneous rocks?

    <p>Crystallization of magma or lava</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe molten material that forms inside the Earth?

    <p>Magma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of olivine group minerals?

    <p>They have a glassy luster with conchoidal fracture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe igneous rocks that form when molten rock solidifies at the surface?

    <p>Extrusive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the Earth's water is freshwater?

    <p>3%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the physical environment and the living organisms that inhabit it?

    <p>Biosphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe natural Earth processes that become hazards when humans are negatively impacted?

    <p>Natural Hazards</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outermost layer of the Earth's solid sphere?

    <p>Crust</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the study of the Earth's systems and how they interact with each other?

    <p>Earth System Science</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of Earth Science?

    <p>The collective study of Earth and the other planets in space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary feature of the hydrosphere?

    <p>The oceans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of Historical Geology?

    <p>The study of the Earth's origin and changes over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of integrating multiple sciences in Meteorology?

    <p>To study the Earth's atmosphere and climate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it essential to study Astronomy in Earth Science?

    <p>To understand the Earth's place in the universe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of the Earth's core?

    <p>Iron-nickel alloy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the Earth is characterized by partial melting, allowing the lithosphere to move independent of the asthenosphere?

    <p>Asthenosphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the geologic time scale?

    <p>To divide the Earth's history into different units</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a change in one system resulting in changes in another or all of Earth's systems?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated thickness of the Earth's outer core?

    <p>2,270 km</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes minerals from other naturally occurring substances?

    <p>They occur naturally and have a definite chemical composition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral?

    <p>Luster</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the streak test in identifying minerals?

    <p>To determine the color of a mineral in its powdered form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the scale used to measure the hardness of a mineral?

    <p>Mohs Scale of Hardness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the internal arrangement of atoms in a mineral?

    <p>Internal structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the scientific method?

    <p>To discover patterns in nature and make predictions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe a bond formed by the transfer of one or more valence electrons from one atom to another?

    <p>Ionic bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe a rock that is composed of entirely one mineral?

    <p>Monomineralic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the number of protons in an atom's nucleus?

    <p>Atomic number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process by which scientists gather data through observation and formulate hypotheses and theories?

    <p>The scientific process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between cleavage and crystal form?

    <p>Cleavage is the way a mineral breaks, while crystal form is the geometric shape of the mineral.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of silicate minerals that allows them to bond to positively charged ions?

    <p>The negative charge of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of measurement for density?

    <p>Grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the streak test in identifying minerals?

    <p>To determine the color of a mineral.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most abundant mineral group?

    <p>Silicates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of dark silicate minerals?

    <p>Higher specific gravity than the light silicates, between 3.2 and 3.6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why silicate minerals have a specific structure and composition?

    <p>Their formation during the crystallization of molten material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which molten material forms inside the Earth?

    <p>Partial melting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of olivine group minerals?

    <p>High temperature silicate mineral that is black to green in color</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following minerals is characterized by having a specific gravity of about 2.7 and containing varying amounts of aluminum, potassium, calcium, and sodium?

    <p>Light Silicate Minerals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe minerals that form as seawater evaporates?

    <p>Evaporites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe igneous rocks that form when molten rock solidifies at the surface?

    <p>Extrusive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of sedimentary rocks that are composed of clays?

    <p>One half</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about quartz?

    <p>It is composed entirely of silicon and oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of feldspar that allows it to form under a wide range of temperature and pressure?

    <p>Its similar physical properties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Earth and Space Science Introduction

    • Earth Science: the collective study of Earth and other planets, including geology, oceanography, meteorology, and astronomy

    Branches of Earth Science

    • Geology: divided into physical geology (study of Earth's materials and processes) and historical geology (study of Earth's origin and changes over time)
    • Oceanography: integrates chemistry, physics, geology, and biology to study oceans
    • Meteorology: study of atmosphere and processes that produce weather and climate
    • Astronomy: study of the universe, including our solar system and its relation to other solar systems

    Spheres of Earth

    • Hydrosphere: dynamic system of water, including oceans, lakes, streams, and groundwater (71% of Earth's surface, 97% of Earth's water)
    • Atmosphere: life-giving gaseous envelope surrounding Earth, essential for life
    • Biosphere: includes all life on Earth, interacting with other spheres
    • Solid Earth/Geosphere: study of Earth's solid interior and surface features

    Concepts

    • System: a group of interacting, interdependent parts forming a complex whole
    • Environment: everything that surrounds and influences an organism (biological, social, nonliving)
    • Natural hazards: Earth processes that become hazardous to humans (e.g., floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions)

    Layers of the Earth

    • Crust: rocky outer skin, divided into continental and oceanic crust
    • Mantle: solid, rocky shell extending to a depth of 1,800 miles
    • Core: iron-nickel alloy core with a density of 11 g/cm3

    Geologic Time Scale

    • Divided into eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages
    • Critical for understanding Earth's history and processes

    Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

    • Renewable: resources replenished by nature at a rate greater than consumption (e.g., solar energy, wind power)
    • Nonrenewable: resources consumed at a rate higher than replenishment (e.g., fossil fuels)

    Scientific Method

    • Process of forming hypotheses, testing, and verifying or rejecting theories
    • Involves observation, measurement, formulation of hypotheses, and experimentation

    Minerals and Rocks

    • Mineral: naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical structure and unique physical properties
    • Rock: aggregate of minerals

    Atomic Structure

    • Atom: smallest unit of matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons
    • Proton: positively charged, found in the nucleus
    • Neutron: neutral, found in the nucleus
    • Electron: negatively charged, orbits the nucleus

    Chemical Bonding

    • Ionic bond: transfer of electrons between atoms
    • Covalent bond: sharing of valence electrons between atoms
    • Metallic bond: free movement of valence electrons between atoms### Silicate Minerals
    • Silicate minerals consist of a pyramid-shaped structure with 4 oxygen ions (O2-) surrounding 1 silicon ion (Si4+), with a net charge of -4.
    • The complex ion bonds with positively charged ions, and each O2- has one valence electron bonded to the Si4+, while the remaining oxygen valence electron is available to bond with another positive ion or an adjacent tetrahedra.
    • The simplest way for the tetrahedra to become neutral compounds is through the addition of positively charged ions, such as Magnesium and/or Iron, which pack between tetrahedra, forming a dense three-dimensional structure.
    • The tetrahedra can also link in a variety of configurations, including single chains, double chains, and sheet structures, which develop due to the sharing of oxygen ions.
    • The ratio of oxygen ions to silicon ions is different in various types of silicate structures, and the amount of silicon content is extremely important in igneous rocks.
    • With the exception of quartz, the structure of silicate minerals has a negative charge, requiring positive ions to form a chemical compound.
    • The positive ions that generally link silicate structures include Iron, Magnesium, Potassium, Sodium, Aluminum, and Calcium.

    Physical Properties

    • The partial covalent bonds of the tetrahedra are stronger than the ionic bonds that hold each silicate structure together, resulting in the physical properties of cleavage and, to some degree, hardness.
    • Examples of minerals with excellent cleavage include quartz and mica.
    • A decrease in density results as the number of shared oxygen ions increases, with examples including olivine and garnet having high specific gravity, while quartz and feldspar have a lower specific gravity.

    Formation of Silicate Minerals

    • Most silicate minerals form during the crystallization of molten material, with the environment during crystallization and chemical composition of the molten material determining which minerals form.
    • Examples include olivine crystallizing at temperatures around 1200°C, while quartz crystallizes at lower temperatures near 700°C.
    • Some silicate minerals form from the weathered products of other silicate minerals, while others form during the extreme pressures exerted during mountain building.
    • Each silicate mineral has a structure and composition that indicates the conditions under which it formed.

    Silicate Mineral Groups

    • Light Silicate Minerals:
      • Generally light in color
      • Have a specific gravity of about 2.7
      • Contain varying amounts of aluminum, potassium, calcium, and sodium
      • Examples include feldspar, quartz, muscovite, and clay minerals
    • Dark Silicate Minerals:
      • Generally dark in color due to the presence of iron and/or magnesium ions
      • Have a higher specific gravity than the light silicates, between 3.2 and 3.6
      • Examples include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite

    Non-Silicate Minerals

    • Carbonates:
      • The two most common carbonates are calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]
      • Both have similar physical and chemical characteristics, such as vitreous luster, hardness between 3 and 4, and rhombic cleavage
    • Sulfates:
      • Gypsum (CaSO4 *2H2O) is the most common sulfate mineral
      • Typically forms as seawater evaporates
    • Halides:
      • Halite (NaCl) is the most common halide mineral
      • Also forms as seawater evaporates
    • Evaporites:
      • Form as seawater evaporates
      • Examples include calcite, gypsum, and halite
    • Other non-silicate minerals:
      • Examples include hematite (iron), sphalerite (zinc), galena (lead), gold, silver, carbon (diamonds), fluorite, corundum, and uraninite (a source of uranium)

    Igneous Rocks

    • Magma is molten material that forms inside the Earth
    • Lava is molten material on the Earth's surface with little or no gas components
    • Crystallization is the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, resulting in the formation of igneous rocks
    • Igneous rocks can be classified by:
      • Texture
      • Mineral Composition
    • Igneous rocks that form when molten rock solidifies at the surface are termed extrusive or volcanic, while those that form at depth are termed intrusive or plutonic

    Earth and Space Science Introduction

    • Earth Science: the collective study of Earth and other planets, including geology, oceanography, meteorology, and astronomy

    Branches of Earth Science

    • Geology: divided into physical geology (study of Earth's materials and processes) and historical geology (study of Earth's origin and changes over time)
    • Oceanography: integrates chemistry, physics, geology, and biology to study oceans
    • Meteorology: study of atmosphere and processes that produce weather and climate
    • Astronomy: study of the universe, including our solar system and its relation to other solar systems

    Spheres of Earth

    • Hydrosphere: dynamic system of water, including oceans, lakes, streams, and groundwater (71% of Earth's surface, 97% of Earth's water)
    • Atmosphere: life-giving gaseous envelope surrounding Earth, essential for life
    • Biosphere: includes all life on Earth, interacting with other spheres
    • Solid Earth/Geosphere: study of Earth's solid interior and surface features

    Concepts

    • System: a group of interacting, interdependent parts forming a complex whole
    • Environment: everything that surrounds and influences an organism (biological, social, nonliving)
    • Natural hazards: Earth processes that become hazardous to humans (e.g., floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions)

    Layers of the Earth

    • Crust: rocky outer skin, divided into continental and oceanic crust
    • Mantle: solid, rocky shell extending to a depth of 1,800 miles
    • Core: iron-nickel alloy core with a density of 11 g/cm3

    Geologic Time Scale

    • Divided into eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages
    • Critical for understanding Earth's history and processes

    Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

    • Renewable: resources replenished by nature at a rate greater than consumption (e.g., solar energy, wind power)
    • Nonrenewable: resources consumed at a rate higher than replenishment (e.g., fossil fuels)

    Scientific Method

    • Process of forming hypotheses, testing, and verifying or rejecting theories
    • Involves observation, measurement, formulation of hypotheses, and experimentation

    Minerals and Rocks

    • Mineral: naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical structure and unique physical properties
    • Rock: aggregate of minerals

    Atomic Structure

    • Atom: smallest unit of matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons
    • Proton: positively charged, found in the nucleus
    • Neutron: neutral, found in the nucleus
    • Electron: negatively charged, orbits the nucleus

    Chemical Bonding

    • Ionic bond: transfer of electrons between atoms
    • Covalent bond: sharing of valence electrons between atoms
    • Metallic bond: free movement of valence electrons between atoms### Silicate Minerals
    • Silicate minerals consist of a pyramid-shaped structure with 4 oxygen ions (O2-) surrounding 1 silicon ion (Si4+), with a net charge of -4.
    • The complex ion bonds with positively charged ions, and each O2- has one valence electron bonded to the Si4+, while the remaining oxygen valence electron is available to bond with another positive ion or an adjacent tetrahedra.
    • The simplest way for the tetrahedra to become neutral compounds is through the addition of positively charged ions, such as Magnesium and/or Iron, which pack between tetrahedra, forming a dense three-dimensional structure.
    • The tetrahedra can also link in a variety of configurations, including single chains, double chains, and sheet structures, which develop due to the sharing of oxygen ions.
    • The ratio of oxygen ions to silicon ions is different in various types of silicate structures, and the amount of silicon content is extremely important in igneous rocks.
    • With the exception of quartz, the structure of silicate minerals has a negative charge, requiring positive ions to form a chemical compound.
    • The positive ions that generally link silicate structures include Iron, Magnesium, Potassium, Sodium, Aluminum, and Calcium.

    Physical Properties

    • The partial covalent bonds of the tetrahedra are stronger than the ionic bonds that hold each silicate structure together, resulting in the physical properties of cleavage and, to some degree, hardness.
    • Examples of minerals with excellent cleavage include quartz and mica.
    • A decrease in density results as the number of shared oxygen ions increases, with examples including olivine and garnet having high specific gravity, while quartz and feldspar have a lower specific gravity.

    Formation of Silicate Minerals

    • Most silicate minerals form during the crystallization of molten material, with the environment during crystallization and chemical composition of the molten material determining which minerals form.
    • Examples include olivine crystallizing at temperatures around 1200°C, while quartz crystallizes at lower temperatures near 700°C.
    • Some silicate minerals form from the weathered products of other silicate minerals, while others form during the extreme pressures exerted during mountain building.
    • Each silicate mineral has a structure and composition that indicates the conditions under which it formed.

    Silicate Mineral Groups

    • Light Silicate Minerals:
      • Generally light in color
      • Have a specific gravity of about 2.7
      • Contain varying amounts of aluminum, potassium, calcium, and sodium
      • Examples include feldspar, quartz, muscovite, and clay minerals
    • Dark Silicate Minerals:
      • Generally dark in color due to the presence of iron and/or magnesium ions
      • Have a higher specific gravity than the light silicates, between 3.2 and 3.6
      • Examples include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite

    Non-Silicate Minerals

    • Carbonates:
      • The two most common carbonates are calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]
      • Both have similar physical and chemical characteristics, such as vitreous luster, hardness between 3 and 4, and rhombic cleavage
    • Sulfates:
      • Gypsum (CaSO4 *2H2O) is the most common sulfate mineral
      • Typically forms as seawater evaporates
    • Halides:
      • Halite (NaCl) is the most common halide mineral
      • Also forms as seawater evaporates
    • Evaporites:
      • Form as seawater evaporates
      • Examples include calcite, gypsum, and halite
    • Other non-silicate minerals:
      • Examples include hematite (iron), sphalerite (zinc), galena (lead), gold, silver, carbon (diamonds), fluorite, corundum, and uraninite (a source of uranium)

    Igneous Rocks

    • Magma is molten material that forms inside the Earth
    • Lava is molten material on the Earth's surface with little or no gas components
    • Crystallization is the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, resulting in the formation of igneous rocks
    • Igneous rocks can be classified by:
      • Texture
      • Mineral Composition
    • Igneous rocks that form when molten rock solidifies at the surface are termed extrusive or volcanic, while those that form at depth are termed intrusive or plutonic

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