Earth & Life Science: The Universe

• This document is an Earth and Life Science Third Quarter Reviewer for the ABM Society of the Senior High School at the University of Santo Tomas, A.Y. 2024-2025.

LESSON 1: The Universe

• The Universe encompasses space, time, and all its contents, including matter, galaxies, and energy.
• The Universe is estimated to be about 13.8 billion years old.
• This age was determined through observations of cosmic microwave background radiation and measurements of the universe's expansion rate.

The Bigbang Theory

• Scientists speculate that the universe began with a massive explosion called the Big Bang.
• The universe started in an extremely hot and dense state, expanding rapidly over time.
• Evidence suggests the universe has been expanding and cooling since then.
• Over billions of years, matter clumped together to form stars, galaxies, and planets.
• Alexander Friedman & Georges Lamaitre (1920) developed the best-supported theory of the universe's origin.
• Arno Penzias and Robern Wilson discovered cosmic microwave background radiation.

Timeline of Bigbang Theory

• Singularity, also known as the Planck Era, is when all matter was condensed on a single point of infinite density and extreme heat.
• Singularity represents the earliest known period of the Universe and exploded 13.7 billion years ago.
• Inflation Epoch: the universe expanded from the size of an atomic nucleus to 1025 meters in width.
• Formation of the Universe: the universe was made up of fundamental particles and energy (Quarks, Electrons, Protons, Neutrons).
• Formation of the Basic Elements: Protons and Neutrons combined to form hydrogen nuclei, which underwent nucleosynthesis to form helium nuclei.
• Radiation Era: energy existed as wavelengths, including cosmic microwave background radiation (afterglow of the big bang), with no presence of matter.
• Matter Domination: matter began to dominate, with electrons joining hydrogen and helium to form small neutral atoms.
• Birth of Stars and Galaxies: irregular areas of gas cloud gravitationally attracted nearby matter, became denser, and eventually gained enough mass to ignite and produce light.

8 Epochs of the Radiation Era

• Planck Epoch: the earliest known period of the universe (13.7 billion years ago) after the explosion of the singularity, forming gravity, strong nuclear, weak, and electromagnetic forces.
• Grand Unification Epoch: The strong nuclear force split away.
• Inflationary Epoch: the remaining forces were weak and electromagnetic; the temperature was rapidly high, and the universe expanded significantly.
• Electroweak Epoch: all forces split away, leaving quarks and electrons.
• Quark Epoch: all of the universe's ingredients were still present.
• Hadron Epoch: the temperature cooled, binding quarks to form protons and neutrons.
• Lepton and Nuclear Epoch: temperature cooled, and protons and neutrons fused to create Helium (He).
• Matter Era refers to the period after the Radiation Era.

Atomic, Galactic, and Stellar Epochs in the Later Universe

• Atomic Epoch: all ingredients were present; recombination (attachment of electrons to the nucleus) occurred, forming Hydrogen (H).
• Galactic Epoch: Helium (He) and Hydrogen (H) populated the universe, forming atomic clouds.
• Within these clouds, packets of gas collected to form the seedlings of galaxies, and stars began to form.
• Stellar Epoch: star formation caused a ripple effect, converting (H) and (He) into different elements, which became building blocks of planets.

Evidence Supporting the Bigbang Theory

• Hubble Space Telescope: Launched in 1990, it orbits Earth and captures unparalleled images of distant celestial objects.
• Ultra Deep Field: A tiny patch of sky packed with thousands of galaxies.
• Red Shifting (Doppler Shift): Occurs because light waves are stretched as the source moves away from Earth, indicating longer wavelengths.
• Blue Shifting: deduces an object is moving closer to Earth (shorter wavelengths).
• Hubble's Law: Galaxies are moving away, with increasing distance between them over time.
• Cosmic Microwave Background: remnant energy from the universe's formation, discovered by Arno Penzlas and Robert Wilson in 1960.
• Light Elements: abundance of Light Elements (Massive amount of He and H and Trace amounts of Li and Be).
• Cosmic Web: Large-Scale Structure of the Universe, where the distribution of galaxies and galaxy clusters forms a vast cosmic web.

The Fate of the Universe

• Big Freeze/Chill (Heat Death): The universe will continue to expand and eventually become extremely cold and empty if expansion accelerates due to dark energy.
• Big Crunch: The outward flight of galaxies will slow and eventually stop, potentially reversing the expansion if gravity is strong enough.

Alternative Theories to the Big Bang

• Inflation Theory
  • Flatness: Big Bang states there should be curvature but Things will appear flat even though it is curved.
  • Horizon: parts of space are now so far apart, they could never have contacted each other.
  • Monopole: Bigbang predicts the production of magnetic poles exponentially decreased to undetectable level during rapid expansion.
• Steady State Theory
  • Where matter is continuously created to maintain constant density. Challenged by the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation
  • When an old star dies, a new replaces it, therefor the Universe remains the same.
• String Theory: Proposes a Universe consisting of tiny, one dimentional vibrating strings.
  • The particle is determined by the corrispond string, however the theory necessitates extra dimensions.
• M Theory: A theory that atempts to reconcile quantum mechanics.
  • Unified framework of 11 dimensions including ten spatial dimensions and one time dimensions, the M-Objects are membranes.

The Multiverse: A Cosmos of Universes

• Theory suggests our universe is one of many existing universes, different universes may have different physical laws, constants, and dimensions.

LESSON 2: The Solar System

Early Solar System Models

• Heliocentrism: Earth and other planets orbit the sun.
• Geocentrism: the moon, sun, and other known planets orbit the Earth.

Elliptical Orbits and Orbital Plane

• Planetary orbits are elliptical (oval-shaped).
• The discovery by Johannes Kepler challenged beliefs in circluar orbits.
• Most planets orbit the Sun on a single plane.
• The orbit is formed after disks of gas and dust.

Planetary Revolution

• Solar system planets revolve around the sun counterclockwise.
• They orbit the sun from west to east.

Historical Theories on the Formation of the Solar System

• Rene Descartes' Vortex Theory: proposed the sun is at the center, with planets carried by swirling matter, comparing it to leaves in a whirlpool, claimed every star has is own vortex.
• Goerges-Louis Leclerc's Collision theory: a comet struck the sun, breaking off debris that became the planets.
• Immanuel Kant and Pierre-Simon Laplace's Nebular Hypothesis, the most widely accepted theory: suggests the solar system originated from a vast, rotating cloud of gas and dust.

Formation of the Solar System

• Collapse: high temperature gas ball collapse then heat up and then become disk shape
• Spinning: Disk spins faster and faster and temperature decreases
• Flattering: Disks flattens due to rotation, because of fast rotation some of the fog escapes.
• Condensation: Some fog formed the core of the largest mass in the mantle, while a small part formed around cooling process
• Accretion: Cores of smaller mass turns into planets while most remain in a high temperature flare.

Compositions of the Sun

• The solar system's heart
• It is a Yellow dwarf Star
• It has a surface temperature of 5,500 Celcius
• and is Composed mainly of hydrogen (74%) and helium (24%), with trace amounts of other elements.

Solar Wind and Terrestrial Planets

• Charged particles stream emminent from the Upper Atmosphere
• Terrestrial Planets
  • Planets: Mercury, Venues, Earth, Mars
  • Substantially smaller (Diameter is less than 13,000KM) short orbital periods, move slowly across space and made of Rock & Metal
  • Mercury: Closest planet, non-existant atomsphere with Oxygen and Hydrogen is its Facts Compositions. Grey w/ craters rock crust.
  • Venus: (Earth sistar planet) "Evening Star" 467c and Carbon Dioxide are facts. Rotates East-West.
  • Earth: 31% Iron and 30% Oxygen.
  • Mar: The Martian planet w/ atmosphere of Nitrogen & Argon
• Jovian Planets: Long orbital periods.
  • Planets: Jupiter Saturn Neptune Uranus
  • Made of Gasses with Rings.
  • Jupiter composition of Hydrogen and Helium.
  • Saturn: The Jewel solar system; Composition is 96% Hydrogen.
  • Uranus: Called The Ice Giant planet.

Alternative Planets in Solar system

• Neptune: Most Distant Planet
• Pluto: Is a dwarf planet
  • There may be types such as Haumea and Eris.
  • Essentially, are spherical or Celestial.

Asteroids and Comets

• Asteroids: Rocky Smaller planets, may look like Dwarf planet
• Comets icy bodes release gases.

###Earths Satellite and Moons

• Earth (Natural Tides); Its influence on climate and axis are stable.
• Is a planet from 27 days

Earth's Surface, Earth's Internal Processes, and Earth's Plates

• Surface diverse landscape
• Internal heat is caused by processes like volcanoes
• Earthquakes can happens through the shifts.

Geological events shaped

• - Uniformitarian*: (continuous/uniform) The concept of it is the study of geological history by action & events.
• - Marine Forms clean:* RA/9725

Dating of Earth

• Is the (age of rocks.)

####Types of dates:

• Relative = relative age
• Absolute = Knows dates

How the Earth interacts with its systems

• Atmosphere
• Hyrosphere
• They are connected & are called Weather
• - Elixir of Life:* Is fundamentally a cell system of it

Elements and composition

• Carbon
• Oxygen
• They all help
• - NOTE!:* In Troposphere you will feel the decrease of temps & in thermosphere is incrases.

Facts

The green house effect is naturally that regulate heat & if something occur may increase Global Temps

• - Elixir of life / Water:* The element in atmosphere & fundamental cell is h20 + more

Oceans and terms

• Oceans:* With Limitless Volumes
• Air Pressure:* refer to wt. pressing
• Freshwaters*: contain freshwater species & 2.5 of earth that keep the surface
• Terms:*
  • Evaporations
  • Condensation
  • Preciption

Volcano

• Are opening in earths and are plates are.

- Facts:

• Earth crust is the opening/
• The eruptions is caused by magma.

Volcanoes and their hazards

• Earthquake
• lahars
• ect..

Main Facts

• The plate will be removed to Earth's from the core.
• The more we dig the more change.

Types of Rocks (6.2)

• Important roles in geology**
• Rocks that have different origins + properties + more
• Notes!*

= Mix While Mineral

Types of Rocks

• Rock Cycle*
• Crystallization'
• --As magna cools (various temps levels from Earth.
• Minerals*
• ---Homogenous + uniform solid structure
• *Earth Changes or Elements & Classfyying it:
• ---Hardness. (Mosh is scade) ####- Facts:
• Cleavage* (way it will break & is how it appears. = Visible apperanance of minerals
• - streak & magnect:
  • *Magnectic will have minerals & metals inside