NRW105-106 Unit 1: Introduction to Environmental Science

The Earth, Humans, & the Environment

• "Environment" is the range of external conditions, physical and biological, in which an organism lives
• It encompasses social, cultural, economic, and political factors, along with soil, climate, and food supply
• Environmental science is the interdisciplinary study of the interactions between living and non-living components of the environment
• A special focus is placed on human impact
• Environmental science includes studying circumstances, objects, and conditions surrounding an organism or community, examining their complex interactions

Why Environmental Science Matters

• Studying environmental science is crucial for the equitable, ethical, and sustainable use of Earth's resources
• The global population's demand is exceeding the planet's carrying capacity
• Understanding human behaviors' effects on the environment is essential
• Scientific principles governing interactions between living and non-living things must be understood
• Evaluating evidence-based arguments on environmental consequences and making informed decisions are vital for the future
• Earth faces unprecedented environmental change due to climate change and habitat loss
• Addressing these challenges requires understanding Earth's complex environmental systems
• These systems are characterized by interactions within and among natural and human components, linking local to global and short-term to long-term phenomena
• Finding and implementing solutions is essential for long-term environmental sustainability

The Process of Science

• Environmental science gathers knowledge about the natural world, similarly to geology, chemistry, and biology
• Scientific methods involve observation, record keeping, logical and mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and scrutiny of conclusions
• Science also requires imagination and creativity
• Well-designed experiments are often described as elegant or beautiful
• Science has practical implications and is sometimes dedicated to applications such as disease prevention
• Curiosity largely motivates other branches of science
• Science has transformed and will continue to transform human existence

The Nature of Science

• Science, from the Latin "scientia" (knowledge), can be defined as knowledge about the natural world
• Science is a specific way of learning or knowing the world
• It has driven technological revolutions for the past 500 years
• Science cannot address purely moral, aesthetic, or spiritual questions
• It cannot investigate areas outside the realm of material phenomena, matter, and energy, or that cannot be observed and measured
• The scientific method is a research method with defined steps, including experiments and observation
• Testing hypotheses is a crucial part of the scientific method
• A hypothesis is a testable explanation for an event
• Hypotheses are formed within the context of a scientific theory
• A scientific theory is a well-tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena and forms the foundation of scientific knowledge
• Scientific laws, often in mathematical form, describe how nature behaves under specific conditions
• Hypotheses are developed within theories, and laws are concise descriptions amenable to math

Natural Sciences

• Natural sciences relate to the physical world, its phenomena, and processes
• Museums of natural sciences may contain items like frogs, plants, dinosaur skeletons, planetariums, gems, and minerals
• Disciplines include astronomy, biology, computer science, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics

Scientific Inquiry

• The ultimate goal of all forms of science is "to know"
• Curiosity and inquiry drive scientific development
• Scientists aim to understand the world and its workings
• Two logical reasoning methods are used: inductive and deductive reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

• Inductive reasoning uses related observations to reach a general conclusion
• It is common in descriptive science
• Biologists make and record qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (numerical) data
• Data is supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos
• Conclusions (inductions) are inferred from many observations
• Inductive reasoning involves generalizations from observation and the analysis of large amounts of data
• Brain studies often use this method, observing brains during tasks to identify active areas and their functions

Deductive Reasoning

• Deduction, is used in hypothesis-based science
• Thinking moves from general principles or laws to specific results
• Scientists extrapolate and predict valid results from general principles
• For example, a prediction for climate change would be plants and animals distributions should change
• Distribution changes have been observed and align with a warming climate, this supports climate change

Scientific Study

• Descriptive (or discovery) science aims to observe, explore, and discover
• Hypothesis-based science starts with a question or problem and tests a potential solution
• Most scientific work combines both approaches, where observations lead to questions
• Questions forming a testable hypothesis, descriptive and hypothesis-based intertwined.

Hypothesis Testing

• Biologists investigate the living world through questions and seeking science-based answers, mirroring other sciences approaches
• The scientific method was used in ancient times
• Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) documented inductive methods, the method isn't exclusive to biologists but applicable as problem-solving
• A scientific process starts with an observation that leads to a question
• A hypothesis is a testable explanation for a problem that can be proposed
• Prediction has a format "If... then..."
• A valid hypothesis, must be testable and falsifiable
• Testing is done through experiments to eliminate hypotheses
• Hypotheses can be disproven, not proven and Science does not deal in mathematics
• If an experiment cannot disprove a hypothesis, the explanation is supported but might be falsified later
• Experiments have variables (changeable parts) and controls (unchanging parts)
• For example, testing phosphate's effect on algae growth includes ponds with and without phosphate
• The variable is the amount of phosphate, experiment cases are the ponds with phosphate, control ponds have an inert substance
• Inert substance as control to determine if adding extra matter affects growth
• Support for a hypothesis is found if phosphate ponds has lesser algae growth
• Rejecting a hypothesis doesn't accept the others, it shows the tested hypothesis validity
• Using the scientific method rejects hypotheses conflicting with the experimental data

Rigid Scientific Methods

• Scientific methods aren't always rigid
• There can be new questions, experiments to favor approach changes
• Scientists draw inferences, make generalizations, and find patterns
• Scientific reasoning is complex

Science Types

• There has been debate on science types
• Basic science expands knowledge for knowledge's sake without immediate value, pure science
• Applied science uses science to solve real-world problems or technology like improving corps
• Applied science is useful and Basic science seems useless
• Basic science enables applied science

Example of Basic vs Appied Science

• An example of sciences working together - practical problems were solved after the discovery of DNA structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing DNA replication
• DNA in cells contains the instructions for life
• Copies of DNA made shortly before a cell divides to form new cells
• Laboratory techniques to identify genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals, determine paternity were enabled by understanding DNA replication

Science, The Human Genome Project and Peer Reviews

• Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project
• It was a study in which researchers analyzed and mapped human chromosomes to determine the precise sequence of DNA subunits and locations of each gene
• Understanding human chromosomes was gained by studying other organisms
• An important end goal was data usage for finding genetically related diseases cures through applied research

Scientific Work

• Scientists share findings for other researchers to expand discoveries whether basic or applied
• Advancing knowledge in and collaboration between science subdisciplines is key
• Disseminating results, collaboration with peers is key
• Results shared by presenting them at science meetings or conferences for limited reach
• Peer-reviewed articles are published in scientific journals, with anonymous reviews
• These colleagues are qualified often in the same research area, judge work suitability for publication
• The peer review ensures that the described research is original, significant, logical, and thorough
• Grant proposals are also subject to peer review
• Experiments reproduced by others to broaden findings
• Results must be consistent amongst scientists
• Results not using peer-review aren't reliable

Sustainability

• Sustainability refers to the challenges of living within the Earth's means without impairing its function encompasses: sociopolitical, scientific, cultural

Taking the Long View

• Over Earth's three to four billion year history, 99.9% of life forms are now gone
• Human history of 200,000 years is insignificant in comparison, yet significant in planetary impact
• A 1986 study estimated humans appropriated 40% of terrestrial plant photosynthesis
• More recent studies stated humans use 25% of photosynthesis on continental shelves to satisfy demand
• This appropriation affects the wide diversity of other species

Evolution and Imbalance

• Evolution usually results in new lifeforms at rate outstripping extinction, leading to biological diversity
• Homo sapiens has upset this balance, with species extinction 10,000 times renewal
• Humans are interfering with the natural world
• Human manipulation to meet needs started 12,000 years ago when settle for hunter lifestyle
• The rate, scale, and nature of human-induced global change (industrial) is unprecedented

Industrial Reasons for Change

• Mechanization improved labor productivity
• Scientific advance and technological innovation were powered by inputs of fossil fuels
• Western consumer culture emerged, generating material flows of unprecedented scale
• Wuppertal Institute said humans move more material across the planet than natural occurrences
• The human population size is unprecedented, increasing annually with 90 million new people
• Environmental impact and human #s have made distribution prominent

Future Considerations

• Patterns of production and consumption are unsustainable
• The global population is projected at 9.8 billion by 2050
• Ecological crises and rising conflict can be countered by balancing over/under-consumption
• Chemicals and materials have been introduced into the environment by humans
• They do not occur in nature or the ratios in which we have introduced them
• Persistent organic pollutants may alter the biosphere/geochemical cycles
• PCBs & CFCs are examples of 100,000 chemicals in global circulation (500-1000 new annually)
• Most chemicals haven't been tested on Humans/life, these issues are subject UN intergovernmental working groups

Sustainability Itself

• The Brundtland Commission popularized sustainable development
• 1972 was a watershed marking first Stockholm International Conference/report publication "Limits to Growth" by the Club of Rome highlighting threat of 'overshoot'(exceeding carrying capacity)
• 1970s and 1980s produced concerned books/reports
• Sustainability-friendly 1990s
• World Conservation Strategy (1980) by IUCN, UNEP and WWF was early attempt to public mobilization

Sustainable Development

• Sustainable development is development that meets present needs without compromising future generations
• Sustainable development is not a state of harmony but a process of change to meet present needs
• Technological development, resource exploitation, institutional change made consistent with future needs
• Sustainable development means improving the quality of life while living within ecosystems carry
• Traditional cultures traced for origin of sustainability (inter-generational equity)
• Inuit say, ‘we borrow it from our children'
• 'Seventh Generation Principle’ (ancient Iroquois), assess major actions’ potential consequences on the seventh generation
• Culture decision-making operates on time scales
• Environmental Equity hasn't improved like resource efficiency
• Current global population ⅕ consume ¾ of Earth resources, ecological devastation would occur if all exercise that
• Global income inequalities prevent poorer countries from reaching standard of living
• Issues of fairness, distributional justice remain unresolved

Environmental Science

• The Ecological Footprint:
  • Developed by William Rees, uses land as a measurement unit
  • The Footprint measures capita consumption, production, and discharge needs
  • Assumptions: "Every category of energy/material consumption and waste discharge requires product capacity of the product"
  • It represents ecological for Earth's population whether or not it coincides at the population's home region
  • Land is used because, the total land only relates to Earth's finite area while working as support function
• Ecological Footprint says what Earth functions need to assist with activities
• It also makes lifestyles and behaviors sustainable (ecologically)
  • Example is Canadian usage compared to others.

Precautionary Principle

• Central to sustainability
• 1998 A consensus statement, measure to be taken when activities cause harm
• precautionary relationships are established from these threats.
• Arises due to combating problems like change in climate
• Health problems continue more rapidly

Global Environmental Stress

• Deforestation-Forests are diminishing yearly, 1 million hectares are lost.
• Area losses take place most in forests (Deciduous).
• Two-Thirds are estimated and are farmers clearing land for agriculture.
• Access is unregulated, and this intensive is decreasing
• Soil-Vegetated land faces serious questions for sustainability at around 10%
• 20% is also degraded down to the point for crop reduction
• **Fresh water-**Access to water is lacking, around 20% and safe sanitation lack for 50%. More trends in water mean the population decreases
• Marine Fisheries-Maximum fisheries are around 25% while 35% are over-fished. Current levels increase due to much known water pollution,wetland loss etc.
• Biodiversity Biodiversity increases, threats can cause degradation pollution. The # of species has found decrease at higher risk with coasts

Influence over Global Climate (Atmosphere)

• Humans influence Climate, responses and community through the Paris Climate agreement
• The Global agreement states to threaten climate and decrease global temperature below 2C
• There industrial countries increase their emissions from static and rise during the past few years
• Climate experts has mentioned to prevent 4C in the future
  • Toxic chemicals-Chemicals are found in commercial world with function and unknown risk
  • Pollutants are so distributed in air/ocean to cause concern for its high toxicity
  • Hazardous Wastes-Industrial effects especially cause heath consequences
  • Radioactive also cause increased military activities
  • Waste: Industrial Production increases its absolute term
  • The triple increase the impacts health and sanitation

Environmental Ethics

• Humans interact with land and its resource determined by ethics
• Early European consumed the land
• An attitude for land was frontier ethic
• Frontier ethics takes the Earth as un limited
• Human ingenuity finds substitutes
• Ethic is complete anthropocentric
• Industrial societies' population increase growth by frontier ethic
• Simon mentioned "life as never better with solutions available"
• However ethical humans include other communities, not managers'
• Ethical places limit Humans
• Space suggests that outer space runs
• Humans can occupy space
• Scenarios show resources help humans on Earth
• Ethic assumes the limited supplies
• Must conserve ethic takes earth limited and humans conserve for future
• They suffer if ethical natural damaged

Sustainable tenants

• Earth is has limited supplies
• Must conserve resourced
• Share Earth resources
• Growth is insatiable
• Part of it
• Affected by natural laws
• Humans Succeed Best When They
• Example shows the oil issue
• Solving the renewable resources'
• Sustainable ethics cause human

Ethic

• Greek slaves equal property
• Humans have always considered it property.
• Humans are slaves or make economic or moral sense
• Humans are mere unethical
• Ethical human are the community
• Humans change as citizen's
• Conserve are divided into two group
• Cabbage tree

Hetch Hetchy Valley

• Site of conflict in 1913
• Caused Yosemite Park CA
• Destruction of Forests
• Momentum movement broke into factions by Roosevelt
• Muir created forest value wealth

Tragedy and Value

• All groups
• The common looks at when Humans don't value
• Human actions by ethic

Humans Common Values

• Public deal with people land
• Hardin restricts individual population growth
• Humans dumping carbon global

Environmental Justice & Indigenous Struggles

Environmental Justice

• defined as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

Enviromental Undesirable

• The NIMBY Principle (Not in My BackYard)
• The Principle: environmental problems
• Dumping has occur and still

Minority Enviroment

• Sited minorities that have protested the sites in neighborhoods
• Coined term of racism

Incident Map

People Group

• United: People Classify themselves over time. Indigenous cultures
• Problems with indgeious people