Earth Coordinate Mapping

• Earth coordinate mapping requires understanding concepts applicable to maps.
• Earth coordinate mapping reviews basic climate concepts for an understanding of human adaptation to regional locations and resources.

Earth Coordinates

• Longitude, also known as a meridian, relies on a chronometer to determine time.
• The military uses a 24-hour clock based on Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
• Latitude, also known as a parallel, uses a sextant to measure the altitude of Polaris, with the altitude equaling one's latitude.
• Latitude is oriented east-west, measuring locations in a north-south system.
• Longitude is oriented north-south, measuring locations east-west.
• "Hour circles" represent conventional time zones, with 24 hours in a solar day and 360 degrees, resulting in 15 degrees of longitude per hour circle.
• Time zones are erratically drawn to include towns and cities, not always as perfect lines from North to South Poles.
• Lines of latitude and longitude form a grid known as the Cartesian Grid Coordinate System.
• Measurements are in degrees, minutes, and seconds of ARC, with a globe consisting of 360 degrees of arc.

Important Measurement Values

• 1 degree equals 60 minutes of arc
• 60 minutes across the top by 60 minutes along the y or vertical axis equals 3,600 square minutes of arc in a square degree.
• 1 minute equals 60 seconds of arc or one nautical mile, with one square minute of arc possessing 3,600 square seconds of arc.
• Longitude distances vary by latitude, converging towards the poles.
• Hour circles are 15 degrees of longitude apart.
• At the Equator, 15 degrees x 60 minutes = 900 nautical miles.
• 1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile = the distance traveled by aircraft or marine vessels at one knot/hr.
• 1 statute mile is 5,280 feet, and 1 nautical mile is nearly 6,080 feet or 1.151515 statute miles.
• The earth's circumference is 21,600 nautical miles or 24,876 statute miles.
• One acre equals 43,560 square feet, and one square mile equals 640 acres.
• One cubic foot of freshwater weighs 62.4 lbs, while one cubic foot of seawater weighs 64.2 lbs; the earth's atmosphere weighs 14.7 lbs/square inch or 29.92 inches of mercury.

Maps and Map Scales

• Large-scale maps range from 1:1 to 1:125,000, showing large detail.
• Small-scale maps are greater than 1:1,000,000, showing small detail.
• Medium scales range from 1:125,000 to 1:1,000,000.

Locational References

• Altitude is an object's angle above the horizon, up to 90 degrees directly overhead.
• Azimuth represents a location on the horizon, with 360 degrees around the horizon.
• Zenith is the point directly overhead.
• At the North Pole, Polaris or the North Star is observed directly overhead.

Map Projections

• Map Projections provide the best spatial representation of the 3D earth in a 2D map by reducing map distortion
• Polar projections are azimuthal, equatorial projections are cylindrical, and mid-latitude locations use conical projections.
• Directions are represented by compass headings (N, S, etc.) or degree headings (0 to 360, where NE is 45 degrees).

Celestial Objects

• Rotation and revolution differentiate celestial objects.
• Seasons result from the angle of inclination, not distance to the sun.
• Seasons: vernal & autumnal equinoxes (equal days of light and darkness) - winter & summer solstices (longest nights and days) Important latitude and longitude values: Equator (0 degrees), Arctic and Antarctic Circles (66.5 degrees N/S), Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn (23.5 degrees N/S).
• Daylight Savings Time differs from Standard Time.

Weather

• Insolation is incoming solar radiation (ultraviolet, infrared, visible light, heat, radio waves, gamma, x-rays).
• Albedo is an object's reflective capacity, with light colors reflecting heat and dark colors absorbing heat.
• Dew Point measures atmospheric moisture, compared with the amount the air could hold defined as relative humidity.
• Water can change phase (gas/liquid/solid).

Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is primarily nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), with CO2 being a variable gas that absorbs heat.
• The jet stream results from the collision of Polar and Tropical air masses, creating weather fronts.
• Temperatures seek equilibrium, with cool air sinking and warm air rising, potentially causing low-level temperature inversions.
• Adiabatic Lapse Rates (Wet and Dry) influences the role of temperature in the atmosphere.
• Adiabatic cooling at the DALR (Dry lapse rate) cools at -5.5 degrees F per 1000 ft of elevation.
• Saturated air cools at a slower rate (-3.3 degrees F per 1000 ft).

Localized Winds

• Localized winds affect seasonal weather, including sea/land breezes, mountain/valley winds, katabatic, Chinook (atmospheric compression) and Santa Ana winds.
• Conduction is the process of physical heat transfer.

Precipitation

• Three mechanisms of precipitation: convection, orographics, and frontal/cyclonics.
• Convection creates cumulus, cumulonimbus, thunderstorms, lightning, tornadoes (Fujita scale), and jet stream interference.
• Orographics occur on the windward side of mountains, creating rain shadow effects and adiabatic cooling/heating.
• Frontal/cyclonics are extra-tropical cyclones with warm/cold fronts, northeasters, and jet streams.
• Energy comes from the latent heat of condensation
• Tropical troughs (winds up to 38 mph) and tropical depressions (30-39 mph).
• Tropical storms have GALE FORCE Winds (39-73 mph)
• Hurricanes/Typhoons/Cyclones (possess Hurricane Force Winds, >74 mph)
• Five storm hazard elements: wind > 74 mph, rain, surge, wind-generated waves, and storm speed.
• Surge is influenced by bathymetry, coastal shape, and water depth

Climatology

• Climatology studies long-term weather based on precipitation and temperature averages over at least 20 years.
• Heat is distributed poleward through atmospheric and oceanic transport.
• The Summer Monsoon involves seasonal wind shifts (hot and rainy) in the Indian Ocean.
• Air blows from High to Low Pressure areas.
• The Winter Monsoon is a seasonal wind (cold and dry) blowing from land to sea.
• Climate changes with latitude and/or elevation.
• Climate groups: A (tropical), B (semi-arid/desert), C (temperate), D (cold temperate), E (polar), and H (highland).

Pre Chapter Readings

• Absolute vs. Relative Locations
• Hinterland - Core - Continental Drift - Alfred Wegener and Pangaea
• Pacific Rim of Fire - Desertification - Glaciation - Greenhouse Effect - Climate Type
• Central Business District (CBD)
• Heinrich von Thunen and his concentric ring theory of land use
• Trends in World Population Distribution
• Megalopolis- continuous urban environment
• Countries in international geography are referred to as states.
• Know realms of population clusters and income levels

Chapter 1 Europe

• Climate Types of Europe: B climate (dry regions), C climate – which is temperate or mild, and D (Cold).
• Industrial Revolution – European Union (EU)
• Infrastructure: Modern and Historical
• A Nation versus a State?
• Intervening Opportunity – an alternative travel destination often occurs when someone is going from City A to City B.
• What are the Major Cities of the European Realm - Top Three.
• What is "Site and Situation?" - French Departements, What is La Defense?
• Landlocked Countries and their neighbors
• Break-of-Bulk-Point
• Rustbelt - where old factories because of modernization.
• What is the European Shatterbelt.

Chapter 2 Russia

• taiga – the northern boreal forests of Russia,
• continentality – interiors of continents te cold and
• distance decay
• Two capitols of Russia - historic St. Petersburg and now Moscow.
• Factors that Contribute to Location of Russian Industry
• United States Industries are based on proximity to 1) market or 2) raw materials and 3) Footloose industries?
• Footloose industries are located wherever company wants to locate them.
• Russian Military Port Cities: Murmansk and Vladivostok
• Ukraine and its warm water port of Odessa