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Questions and Answers
Which theory suggests that the universe will eventually reverse and contract?
Which theory suggests that the universe will eventually reverse and contract?
- Oscillating Universe Theory (correct)
- Accretion Hypothesis
- Steady State Theory
- Big Bang Theory
What characteristic describes a closed system in the context of Earth's systems?
What characteristic describes a closed system in the context of Earth's systems?
- Both energy and matter are transferred
- Matter is transferred but energy is not
- No transfer of any kind occurs
- Only energy is transferred (correct)
In which layer of the atmosphere do clouds typically form?
In which layer of the atmosphere do clouds typically form?
- Thermosphere
- Stratosphere
- Mesosphere
- Troposphere (correct)
The process of accretion in the context of Earth's formation refers to what?
The process of accretion in the context of Earth's formation refers to what?
What happens during the Big Crunch theory according to cosmological predictions?
What happens during the Big Crunch theory according to cosmological predictions?
What geological feature is formed at a divergent boundary?
What geological feature is formed at a divergent boundary?
What typically occurs when two continental plates converge?
What typically occurs when two continental plates converge?
Which of the following best describes superposition in geology?
Which of the following best describes superposition in geology?
What defines the subduction zone in oceanic-continental convergence?
What defines the subduction zone in oceanic-continental convergence?
What does 'half-life' refer to in geology?
What does 'half-life' refer to in geology?
What process involves the breakdown of rocks by the impact and friction caused by other materials?
What process involves the breakdown of rocks by the impact and friction caused by other materials?
What term describes the movement of soil and rock down a slope due to gravity?
What term describes the movement of soil and rock down a slope due to gravity?
Which process involves the response of oxygen with minerals, often resulting in rusting?
Which process involves the response of oxygen with minerals, often resulting in rusting?
What type of fault occurs when the hanging wall moves downward with respect to the foot wall?
What type of fault occurs when the hanging wall moves downward with respect to the foot wall?
Which melting process occurs when rock is near its melting temperature due to the presence of water and carbon dioxide?
Which melting process occurs when rock is near its melting temperature due to the presence of water and carbon dioxide?
What does the Plate Tectonic Theory explain regarding Earth's landforms?
What does the Plate Tectonic Theory explain regarding Earth's landforms?
Which type of stress on rocks is characterized by pushing rocks together?
Which type of stress on rocks is characterized by pushing rocks together?
What was the name of the supercontinent that existed approximately 200 million years ago?
What was the name of the supercontinent that existed approximately 200 million years ago?
What is the main factor that determines the classification of rocks as igneous?
What is the main factor that determines the classification of rocks as igneous?
Which of the following best describes sedimentary rocks?
Which of the following best describes sedimentary rocks?
What characteristic of minerals is described by luster?
What characteristic of minerals is described by luster?
Which property indicates how a mineral can break along specific planes of weakness?
Which property indicates how a mineral can break along specific planes of weakness?
What is the main chemical composition of silicate minerals?
What is the main chemical composition of silicate minerals?
Which type of metamorphic process involves the application of extreme heat and pressure?
Which type of metamorphic process involves the application of extreme heat and pressure?
The presence of which element would classify a mineral as a native element?
The presence of which element would classify a mineral as a native element?
In which classification would you place a rock formed from the accumulation of organic materials?
In which classification would you place a rock formed from the accumulation of organic materials?
What type of weathering involves breaking rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition?
What type of weathering involves breaking rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition?
What feature of the thermosphere is associated with electrically charged atoms and molecules?
What feature of the thermosphere is associated with electrically charged atoms and molecules?
What is a characteristic of disconformity in geological terms?
What is a characteristic of disconformity in geological terms?
Which term describes the point inside the Earth where an earthquake originates?
Which term describes the point inside the Earth where an earthquake originates?
How is the magnitude of an earthquake primarily measured?
How is the magnitude of an earthquake primarily measured?
What describes the wave types when swash is stronger than backwash?
What describes the wave types when swash is stronger than backwash?
Which type of flooding occurs far from the coast?
Which type of flooding occurs far from the coast?
What leads to coastal erosion according to the content?
What leads to coastal erosion according to the content?
Which erosion process involves rock fragments colliding and eroding each other?
Which erosion process involves rock fragments colliding and eroding each other?
What is often a byproduct of earthquakes that occurs due to infrastructural damage?
What is often a byproduct of earthquakes that occurs due to infrastructural damage?
Which option best defines the term 'tsunami'?
Which option best defines the term 'tsunami'?
What happens to the intensity of an earthquake as the distance from the epicenter increases?
What happens to the intensity of an earthquake as the distance from the epicenter increases?
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Study Notes
Four Subsystems of the Earth
- Earth consists of interconnected systems that facilitate movement and transfer of matter and energy.
- Main subsystems: atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.
Theories about the Origin of the Universe
- Big Bang Theory: Suggests the universe is expanding and galaxies are moving away from each other.
- Singularity: Denotes a dense core predicted to exist in black holes.
- Steady State Theory: Proposes the universe has always been expanding.
- Oscillating Universe Theory: Describes a cyclic universe that contracts and expands, possibly leading to new universes (Big Crunch).
Accretion Hypothesis
- Accretion: Process of gradual size increase of celestial bodies through matter accumulation due to gravity.
- Homogeneous Accretion: Involves accumulation from materials of similar composition.
- Heterogeneous Accretion: Results in a differentiated planet during formation.
Layers of the Atmosphere
- Troposphere: Contains clouds; closest to Earth’s surface.
- Stratosphere: Home to the ozone layer, which converts UV radiation to heat.
- Mesosphere: Coldest atmospheric layer; meteors burn up here.
- Thermosphere: Northern and Southern Lights occur; ionosphere comprised of charged particles.
- Exosphere: Very thin atmosphere; where satellites orbit.
Physical Properties of Minerals and Rocks
- Luster: Reflectivity of a mineral; categorized as metallic or non-metallic.
- Hardness: Resistance to abrasion, measured by Moh's scale.
- Color: Useful for identifying minerals; streak can differ from the mineral’s visible color.
- Crystal Form: Describes internal structure; bonding types include covalent, ionic, and metallic.
- Cleavage and Fracture: Cleavage refers to breaking along planes of weakness; fracture refers to irregular breakage.
Three Classifications of Rocks
- Igneous: Formed from solidified magma; further divided into extrusive (volcanic) and intrusive (plutonic).
- Sedimentary: Preserve environmental records; types include clastic (broken material), chemical (precipitated materials), and organic (plant/animal debris).
- Metamorphic: Formed from existing rocks through heat and pressure; exhibit bonding or stripes.
Weathering Processes
- Physical Weathering: Mechanical breakdown of rocks; includes frost wedging and abrasion.
- Chemical Weathering: Breakdown through chemical reactions; oxidation is a common example.
- Mass Wasting: Movement of rock and soil under gravity’s influence.
Plate Tectonic Theory
- Explains geological formations due to Earth's subterranean movements.
- Major plate boundaries include:
- Divergent: Plates spread apart, forming rift valleys or mid-ocean ridges.
- Convergent (oceanic-oceanic, oceanic-continental, continental-continental): Plates collide, leading to subduction or mountain range formation (e.g., Himalayas).
Geological Processes and Hazards
- Earthquakes: Sudden ground movements caused by lithospheric shifts; measured by magnitude and intensity.
- Tsunamis: Giant waves triggered by seismic activity; coastal areas are most at risk.
- Landslides: Down-slope earth material movement; often related to weathering or seismic activity.
Unconformities in Geological Layers
- Disconformities: Parallel rock layers that are misaligned.
- Nonconformities: Occur when older rocks are exposed to erosion before the deposition of younger layers.
- Angular Unconformities: Horizontal layers over tilt/fold layers.
Hydrometeorological Hazards
- Floods: Water overflows onto dry land; includes inland, flash, river, and coastal floods.
- Storm Surge: Rise in seawater due to storms, indicating potential flooding threats.
Types of Erosion
- Abrasion: Erosion caused by rock fragments against cliffs.
- Hydraulic Pressure: Air trapped in cracks leading to erosion.
- Attrition: Erosion from collisions of rocks during transportation.
This topic overview provides comprehensive insights into Earth's systems, geological processes, and the dynamics of our planet and its formation.
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