Early US Court Cases: Sedition Act and Judicial Review

The Rise of Factionalism, Partisanship, and the “Vices of Democracy” in the early United States (1795-1850)

Court Cases

United States v. Thomas Cooper (1800)

• A Federalist-controlled government under John Adams wanted to repress opposition via the Alien and Sedition Acts.
• The Sedition Act of 1798 criminalized criticism of the U.S. government, punishable by fines and imprisonment.
• Thomas Cooper, a newspaper editor, was convicted under the Sedition Act for harshly criticizing President Adams.
• The Sedition Act was later repealed following presidency of Thomas Jefferson.
• Subsequent laws restricting free speech would face judicial review.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

• This Supreme Court case established judicial review, giving the Court power to invalidate laws.
• William Marbury sought a writ of mandamus to force government officials to deliver his appointment, referencing the Judiciary Act of 1789.
• Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his commission and a remedy if violated.
• However, the Court could not issue a writ of mandamus in this case.
• The relevant provision of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was deemed unconstitutional.
• The Supreme Court has the power to review laws passed by Congress and the Executive Branch for constitutionality.
• The decision solidified the judiciary as a coequal branch of government.
• The Constitution was established as the supreme law of the land.

Fletcher v. Peck (1810)

• The Supreme Court first ruled a state law unconstitutional.
• States cannot pass laws impairing contracts, even if those contracts were corrupt.
• It stemmed from the "Yazoo Land Act" of 1795 in Georgia, where land grants to private companies were allegedly made in exchange for bribe.
• The Georgia legislature voided the land grant.
• Robert Fletcher, who purchased land from John Peck, sued Peck for breach of contract.
• The Court, under Chief Justice John Marshall, unanimously ruled that Georgia's repeal of the Yazoo Land Act was unconstitutional and violated the Contract Clause.

Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816)

• The Supreme Court has the authority to review state court decisions on federal law.
• It affirms the Judiciary Act of 1789 and ensures consistent interpretation of federal law across states.
• The case established the Supreme Court's supremacy in constitutional interpretation and over state courts.
• It makes it the most powerful court in the United States.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

• The Court affirmed Congress's power to create a national bank under the Necessary and Proper Clause.
• States cannot tax federal entities, reinforcing federal power.
• The Court acknowledged Congress's implied powers to carry out its enumerated powers, as stated in the Necessary and Proper Clause.
• The Court affirmed federal supremacy, meaning federal law prevails over state law in conflicts.

Cohens v. Virginia (1821)

• The Supreme Court has the power to review state court decisions in criminal cases involving federal law.
• It solidifies the Supreme Court's role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution and federal law.
• State actions are subject to federal review when federal law or constitutional rights are involved.

Worcester v. Georgia (1832)

• Georgia's extension of state authority into Cherokee territory was deemed unconstitutional.
• The Cherokee Nation's sovereignty and federal authority over tribal affairs was affirmed.
• This ruling was largely ignored by President Andrew Jackson.
• The court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was a "distinct, independent political community".
• Georgia's laws within Cherokee territory were unconstitutional.
• This violated the U.S. Constitution, treaties, and laws of the United States.
• The government's authority over Native American affairs was not fully enforced in this instance.
• It led to the forced removal of the Cherokee Nation from their lands, known as the Trail of Tears.

Prigg v. Pennsylvania (1842)

• The Supreme Court ruled that the federal Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 superseded Pennsylvania's "personal liberty law".
• Pennsylvania's "personal liberty law" prohibited officials from assisting in capturing fugitive slaves.
• The case stemmed from Edward Prigg, a Maryland-based slave catcher, who was convicted for abducting a family and returning them to slavery.
• The Supreme Court overturned Prigg's conviction, affirming that the federal Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 superseded Pennsylvania's law.
• The decision reinforced federal power to reclaim fugitive slaves, even in free states.
• The Prigg decision highlighted federal and state authority tensions, particularly regarding slavery and paved the way for the stronger Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.

Presidential Elections

1800 Election

• Vice President Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) defeated President John Adams (Federalist).
• Jefferson and Aaron Burr (Democratic-Republicans) and Adams and Charles C. Pinckney (Federalists) ran.
• The plan was for one elector to abstain so the party's presidential candidate would win by one vote.
• Jefferson and Burr each won 73 electoral votes, Adams won 65, and Pinckney won 64.
• A tie between Jefferson and Burr necessitated a contingent election in the House of Representatives.
• The outgoing House of Representatives chose between Jefferson and Burr.
• Alexander Hamilton influenced Federalists to support Jefferson, securing Jefferson's victory on the 36th ballot.
• Jefferson became the second consecutive incumbent vice president to be elected president.

1824 Election

• Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William Crawford contended for the presidency.
• The election was inconclusive because no candidate won an electoral vote majority.
• John C. Calhoun secured the vice presidency.
• As no presidential candidate had an electoral vote majority, the House of Representatives held a contingent election.
• On February 9, 1825, the House elected John Quincy Adams as president.
• The election signaled the end of the Republican-Federalist political structure.
• Adams had a victory in New England, Jackson with wide appeal, Clay attracting votes from the West, and Crawford from the eastern South.
• Jackson only earned a plurality of electoral votes.
• The House elected John Quincy Adams on the first ballot.
• The election marked the final collapse of the Republican-Federalist political framework.
• Jackson's electoral college plurality involved the Three-fifths Compromise.

1828 Election

• John Quincy Adams (National Republican) faced Andrew Jackson (Democratic)
• This was the second rematch in presidential history.
• Both parties were new organizations.
• This election was the nominees first contested election.
• Jackson's supporters accused Adams and Henry Clay of a "corrupt bargain" to win the 1824 election, with Clay becoming Secretary of State.
• The Democratic-Republican Party split into the National Republican Party and the Democratic Party during Adams's presidency.
• The campaign involved significant "mudslinging," with attacks on personal qualities.
• Jackson was dominant in the South and West, aided by the Tariff of 1828.
• The expansion of voting rights led to a dramatic increase in voter participation, with 9.5% of Americans voting.

1844 Election

• James K. Polk defeated Whig Henry Clay, focusing on slavery and Texas annexation.
• Both nominees had served as Speaker of the House, but at the time of the election, neither held elective office.
• Polk was the first "dark horse" presidential nominee.
• Whigs questioned "Who is James K. Polk?", while Democrats attacked Clay's moral character.
• Both slaveholders, Polk and Clay navigated the issue of slavery, complicated by Texas annexation and the Liberty Party.
• Polk highlighted states' rights, while Clay was painted as indecisive.
• Democrats called Polk "the Napoleon of the stump".

Related Terms

1842 Apportionment Act

• The law reduced the size of the House of Representatives and required states to use single-member districts.
• It was based on the 1840 census and passed by the Twenty-seventh Congress in July 1842.
• President Tyler signed the bill while questioning its constitutionality.

What the Act Did

• Set the ratio of representatives to residents at one for every 70,680.
• The act decreased the number of House seats from 242 to 223.
• States split into congressional districts based on apportionment.
• The act required that a single representative to be elected from each district.

What the Act led to

• The act led to heated debate.
• It reflected the political and sectional divisions of the Second Party System.
• It led to the legal tradition of requiring single-member district elections for the House.

"Dark Horse"

• An unexpected winner.

"Hard Cider Campaign"

• During the 1840 presidential election, Whigs used the mockery to their advantage.
• They portrayed William Henry Harrison as a man of the people.
• Harrison won the election but died of pneumonia after 31 days in office.
• The use of slogans and imagery is considered the first modern election campaign for the U.S. presidency.

"Kitchen Cabinet"

• It is a group of informal advisers to a political leader
• This term originated during Andrew Jackson's presidency.
• Jackson's opponents used the term to describe his unofficial group of advisers, who had a lot of influence over the president.

"Our Federal Union, it must be preserved"

• President Andrew Jackson gave the toast in 1830 at a Jefferson-Jackson Day dinner.
• The toast was to express his opposition to the doctrine of nullification.
• Jackson made the toast in response to Vice President John C. Calhoun's argument that states could declare federal laws unconstitutional.
• Calhoun based his argument on the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions of 1798.
• Jackson considered nullification to be treasonous and absurd.

"Rather be right than president"

• Henry Clay gave a speech on the Senate floor in February of 1839.
• The speech was an effort to prove that he was not a wild-eyed abolitionist.
• Clay expressed his opposition to the abolitionist movement.
• The speech cost Clay the support of anyone opposed to slavery.

"Seventh of March Speech"

• Senator Daniel Webster gave the speech on March 7, 1850.
• He strongly advocated for the Compromise of 1850.
• The speech urged sectional compromise to preserve the Union.
• Stricter fugitive slave laws, which alienated many in his own Northern constituency, were presented.

"Tyranny of the Majority"

• James Madison called "the tyranny of the majority" - The Founders determined to forestall the inherent dangers.
• A republic has checks and balances.
• There is a system of government carefully balanced to safeguard the rights of both the majority and the minority.
• That led to the bicameral structure of our legislative branch.
• The House of Representatives - The number of members is greater for more populous states it (obviously favors those states).
• The Senate has every state from Rhode Island, Alaska to California, and New York has exactly two representatives.
• It keeps less-populated states from being steamrolled.

Abolitionist Movement

• The abolitionist movement was an organized effort to end the practice of slavery in the United States.
• Supporters and critics often engaged in heated debates and violent— even deadly—confrontations.
• The divisiveness and animosity fueled by the movement, along with other factors, led to the Civil War and ultimately the end of slavery in America.

A.B. Plot

• This refers to the political conflict between Senator Ninian Edwards and William H. Crawford in 1823–1824.
• Edwards accused Crawford of misusing banks to collect public land revenues and suppressing letters about his banking practices.
• Crawford was recalled to testify before an investigating committee and resigned his position as Minister to Mexico.

Adams Cabinet Purge

• Adams fired a department secretary on May 12, 1800.
• The First Federal Congress had created the executive departments and determined who would have the power to remove the secretaries.
• They ultimately concluded that the president needed to have the sole power of removal of the department secretaries (except for impeachment).

Address of Southern Delegates to Constituents

• Southern representatives in the US Congress addressed their constituents.
• They primarily focused on their concerns regarding the preservation of slavery and states' rights.
• The argument was that the North was violating the original constitutional bargain by attempting to restrict slavery in new territories.
• The document is most notably associated with John C. Calhoun.
• It was published around 1849.

Age of Reason by Thomas Paine

• The book challenged traditional religious beliefs and advocated for rationalism and free thought.
• He promotes natural religion and argues for the existence of a creator god.
• Most of Paine's arguments had long been available to the educated elite.
• Paine presented them in an engaging and irreverent style.
• He made deism appealing and accessible to the masses

Albany Regency

• This was a group of politicians who ran the New York state government from 1822 to 1838.
• It was one of the first political machines in the United States.
• The Albany Regency helped create the "spoils system", which gave public offices and other benefits in exchange for votes

Alien and Sedition Acts

• The laws were passed by a Federalist-controlled Congress and signed by President John Adams. Key items
• To limit Democratic-Republican criticism of Federalist policies
• To prevent aliens from sympathizing with the French during a war

Key Provisions

• Increased the residency requirement for citizenship from 5 to 14 years
• Allowed the president to deport aliens
• Made it illegal to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" about the government

Impact

• The acts were widely criticized and contributed to the Federalists' defeat in the 1800 election
• The acts tested the limits of freedom of speech and press
• The acts are considered a stain on Adams' reputation

Legacy

• The acts were repealed or allowed to expire after Jefferson's victory in 1800
• Jefferson pardoned those convicted under the act

American Anti-Slavery Society

• Founded in 1833 in Philadelphia, the AASS was based on the model of London's Anti-Slavery Society.
• Goals were to Abolish slavery immediately and unconditionally.
• Encourage civil disobedience, Boycott cotton and other products of slave labor, and Purify churches of their participation in slavery

American Colonization Society

• The ACS was founded in 1816 by Robert Finley, a Presbyterian minister from New Jersey.
• The ACS believed that freed African Americans would have more freedom and respect in Africa than in the United States.
• Finley believed that colonization would benefit both African Americans and Africans by spreading Christianity to Africa.
• Finley also thought it would gradually end slavery.

American System

• Henry Clay's "American System" was devised in the burst of nationalism that followed the War of 1812.
• Henry Clay sought to harmonize and balance the nation's agriculture, commerce, and industry. This "System" consisted of three mutually reinforcing parts:
• A tariff to protect and promote American industry.
• A national bank to foster commerce.
• Federal subsidies for roads, canals, and other "internal improvements" to develop profitable markets for agriculture

American Temperance Society

• The organization was founded in 1826.
• It encouraged people to abstain from alcohol.
• The ATS was a national organization that brought together local and state temperance groups.
• The ATS used "moral suasion" to convince people to abstain from alcohol.
• Membership in the ATS required signing an abstinence pledge.
• The pledge often included imagery or language related to protecting family and home life

American Toleration and Reform Ticket

• This was a political party that dominated the political life of Connecticut from 1817 to 1827.
• The American Toleration and Reform Ticket party name referred not to nativism, but to the party's national orientation.
• They were formed by an alliance of the more conservative Episcopalians with the Democratic-Republicans, as a result of the discrimination of the Episcopal Church by the Congregationalist state government.
• In the 1817 elections, the Toleration Party swept control of the General Assembly.
• By the end of the 1820s, the Tolerationists had developed into the Jacksonian branch of the Connecticut Democratic Party.

Amistad Affair

• This was a legal battle that began in 1839.
• Enslaved Africans revolted on a Spanish ship.
• The Africans won their freedom after a trial in the U.S. Supreme Court.
• The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Africans.

Anti-Jackson Party

• Clay's supporters regrouped around him after Adams's defeat in the 1828 election.
• They soon organized as the National Republican Party.
• The new party maintained its historic nationalistic outlook and desired to use national resources to build a strong economy

Anti-Masonic Party

• Opponents of the society seized upon the uproar to create the Anti-Masonic Party.
• First American third party
• First political party to hold a national nominating convention
• First to offer the electorate a platform of party principles.

Argus of Western America

• The Argus of Western America was published in Frankfort, Kentucky.
• It supported Henry Clay.
• It switched allegiances to his rival Andrew Jackson after 1824.

Assumption Plan

• Proposed by Alexander Hamilton
• It proposed pay off state debts from the Revolutionary War.
• The federal government would take on the states' debts.
• New bonds would be issued to replace the old state bonds.
• Some taxpayers objected to paying the full face value of old bonds that had lost value.
• Some states didn't want to pay off other states' debts.
• The plan established the credit of the United States at home and abroad.
• The plan attracted foreign investment to the United States.
• James Madison and Thomas Jefferson opposed the plan.

Aurora General Advertiser

• Benjamin Franklin Bache founded the "Aurora General Advertiser."
• Bache established the Aurora as a Republican newspaper.
• It could counter the many Federalist newspapers in circulation at the end of the eighteenth century, and became the leading Republican paper.
• Bache's Aurora was fiercely critical of both the Washington and Adams administrations
• Federalists frequently accused Bache of being an agent of the revolutionary French government.

Bank Veto

• President Andrew Jackson vetoed a bill to establish a national bank in 1832.
• Jackson's veto was based on his belief that the bank was unconstitutional and dangerous to the public.
• Jackson's veto was a key moment in American history.
• It set a precedent for how presidents interpret the Constitution.

Bank War

• The Bank War was a political conflict between President Andrew Jackson and the Second Bank of the United States.
• Jackson believed the bank was corrupt and concentrated economic power in the hands of a few, which influenced the decision.
• The Bank War highlighted Jackson's populist agenda.
• It shaped economic debates and party ideologies.
• It contributed to the Panic of 1837

Bluffton Movement

• This was a call to secession.
• Secession would take place if the South was not guaranteed its rights to slavery, a lower tariff, and states' rights

Boston Brahmins

• "Boston Brahmins" are members of Boston's historic upper class
• They were often associated with a cultivated New England accent, Harvard University, Anglicanism, and traditional British-American customs and clothing. Descendants of the earliest English colonists are typically considered the most representative of the Boston Brahmins.

Bucktail Republicans

• They were the faction of the Democratic-Republican Party in the US state of New York that opposes Governor DeWitt Clinton.
• The Bucktails were led by Martin Van Buren.
• Critiques called this ruthless distribution of offices a spoils system.

Buffalo Anti-Slavery meeting

• The Liberty Party, with a platform focused on abolition, held its second convention on Aug. 30, 1843 in Buffalo, New York.
• The party supported the abolitionist cause.
• It broke away from the American Anti-Slavery Society.
• They wanted to advocate the view that the Constitution was an anti-slavery document.

Burr Conspiracy/Trial

• It was a treasonous plot alleged to have been planned by Aaron Burr in the years during and after his single term as third Vice President of the United States.
• The accusation made against former Vice President Burr was that he attempted to use his international connections and support from a cabal of American planters.
• Burr was ultimately acquitted of treason in a trial
• The fiasco and affair further destroyed his already faltering political career.

Chesapeake-Leopard affair

• The Chesapeake-Leopard affair was a naval battle between the British ship HMS Leopard and the American ship USS Chesapeake that took place on June 22, 1807.
• The incident angered Americans and contributed to the War of 1812.
• President Thomas Jefferson responded with an embargo against Britain and France in 1807.
• The embargo hurt American industries and was difficult to enforce.

Clay statement on Texas Annexation

• Henry Clay was against the annexation of Texas because he feared it would lead to war with Mexico and increase the spread of slavery.
• Clay published a letter called the "Raleigh Letter" that argued for peace, union, and patience.
• Clay lost the election to James K. Polk, who strongly favored annexation of Texas.

Come-outer

• A phrase coined in the 1830s which denotes a person who withdraws from an established organization or who advocates political reform.
• It originally referred to abolitionist Christians in America who left their churches due to opposing views on slavery.

Committee of Fifteen (1819)

• They were a group of delegates appointed to draft Alabama's first constitution in 1819.
• The committee was formed at a constitutional convention in Huntsville, Alabama.
• The Alabama Constitution of 1819 was a liberal document for its time.

Compact theory

• A political and legal theory in the United States.
• The federal government was created by agreement between the states.
• The theory is that the states created the federal government.
• It is often associated with the Mayflower Compact of 1620.
• States have the power to determine when the federal government goes beyond its constitutional limits.

Compromise of 1850

• This was a series of laws passed by Congress in September 1850 to address sectional tensions over slavery.
• Included California entering the Union as a free state
• Defined Texas's border in return for debt relief
• Establishing New Mexico and Utah as official territories
• Banning the slave trade in the District of Columbia in exchange for a new fugitive slave law.

Conscience Whigs

• The Conscience Whigs established a separate Free Soil Party.
• The Whig Party split among divided among “Conscience Whigs” and “Cotton Whigs” in 1848..
• The division came from conflict regarding slavery,

Corrupt bargain

• Andrew Jackson received the most popular votes and most electoral votes in the 1824 election, but did not become president.
• Many believed that Clay convinced Congress to elect Adams over Jackson, who then made Clay his Secretary of State.
• Jackson's supporters denounced this as a "corrupt bargain”.

Cotton Whigs

• Their Whig Party split in 1848
• The division came from conflict regarding slavery,

Deism

• It is a philosophical movement that influenced the Founding Fathers of the United States.
• Deists believed in using reason to solve social and political problems
• They believed that a supreme being created the universe through natural laws.

Democracy

• Was the idea that all people are created equal
• Those people have fundamental rights - Liberty, Free Speech, Freedom of Religion
• Also Due Process of Law and Freedom of Assembly

Democratic Party Convention of 1832

• It was the first presidential nominating convention ever held by the Democratic Party.
• Jackson and Van Buren were nominated for a second term

Democratic Party Convention of 1844

• This was a presidential nominating convention May 27 - 30.

Democratic-Republican Societies

• They were local political organizations.
• They formed in the United States in 1793 and 1794.
• They wanted to promote republicanism and democracy.
• They wanted to fight aristocratic tendencies.

Dorr Rebellion

• a short-lived armed uprising.
• A watershed in the history of states' rights.
• An example of early American radicalism.

Doughface

• In the years leading up to the American Civil War, "doughface" was used to describe Northerners who favored the Southern position in political disputes.
• Typically it was applied to a Northern Democrat.
• The Northern congressman was not opposed to slavery in the South before or during the American Civil War.

Era of Good Feelings

• The "Era of Good Feelings" is considered "bad" because despite its seemingly positive name, it masked growing political and sectional tensions, particularly regarding slavery, which ultimately led to a major economic depression known as the Panic of 1819,

Erie Canal

• The Erie Canal was built between 1817 and 1825.
• It traversed 363 miles from Albany to Buffalo.
• Transforming New York City into the nation's principal seaport
• The longest artificial waterway and the greatest public works project in North America
• Cemented New York as the Empire State - Put the state on the map

Electoral college

• This is the group of presidential electors that is formed every four years during the presidential election.
• Sole purpose is to vote for the president and vice president.
• This process is described in Article Two of the Constitution.
• A simple majority of electoral votes (270 or more) is required to elect the president and vice president.

Essex Junto

• The Essex Junto was a group of Federalist political leaders in Massachusetts.
• Like Hamilton, the Junto leaders supported neutrality, wanted friendship with Britain, and opposed Revolutionary France.
• Lacked sympathy with the War of 1812.

Federal Debt

• It dates back to the American Revolutionary War.
• Alexander Hamilton's plan was to consolidate the debts into one national debt.
• Hamilton argued that debt could be an asset.

Federalism

• A system of government that divides power between a national government and state governments.
• Goal of federalism was to combine a strong national government with enough autonomy for states to address local issues.

Federalists

• They advocated for the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
• They promoted a strong central government.
• Hamilton, Madison, and Jay wrote the "Federalist Papers".

Federalists Paper No. 10

• Arguing for a strong federal government.
• The Constitution was designed to check political parties and factions.

First Bank of the United States

• They helped fund the public debt left from the American Revolution.
• It facilitated the issuance of a stable national currency.
• It provided a convenient means of exchange for all the people of the United States.

First Party System

• The political party system in the United States between roughly 1792 and 1824
• It featured two national parties competing for control of the presidency and the congress: the Federalist Party and Republican Party

Force Bill

• It gave the president the power to collect import duties in cash.
• It allowed the president to detain vessels.
• It authorized the use of military force to enforce tariff collections.
• The bill was passed during the Nullification Crisis.
• Senators negotiated a compromise Tariff of 1833.

Free Soil Party

• The party focused on opposing the expansion of slavery into the western territories.
• It was also called the Free Democratic Party or the Free Democracy.
• A political party in the United States from 1848 to 1854.

French Revolution

• A period of political and social upheaval in France
• It aimed to change the relationship between the rulers and the governed, and to redefine political power.
• It ended the monarchy and feudalism, and established civil laws and a representative government.

Fries' Rebellion

• An armed uprising in Pennsylvania in 1799 against a new federal property tax.
• The rebellion was led by John Fries, an auctioneer from Milford Township.
• The Fries Rebellion was the third major tax revolt in the 1780s and 1790s but was still politically important.

Gabriel's Rebellion

• A force was planned to enter Richmond.
• They would capture the Virginia State Armory and hold Governor James Monroe hostage Bargain
• The revolution was for freedom for Virginia's slaves.
• Twenty Five of his followers and himself were hanged

Gag rule

• A resolution that prohibited members of the House from raising, considering, or discussing slavery.

Gazette of the United States

• An early American newspaper, first issued semiweekly in New York
• It was friendly to the Federalist Party.
• Meant to unify the country under its new government.
• Leading paper
• Praised the Washington and Adams administrations and their policies

General Survey Act

• Was a law passed in 1824 that allowed the US Army to survey and improve transportation routes

German Republican Society

• Societies were founded in Philadelphia between 1793 and 1794.
• the Society's stated primary mission was the broad dissemination of political knowledge.
• It was for the purposes of encouraging civic participation and protecting against government corruption.
• The Societies claimed to be non-partisan.
• They were frequently attacked for promoting "faction“.

Graves-Cilley duel

• The duel between Jonathan Cilley and William Graves in 1838 was the last fatal duel between members of Congress in the United States.
• a law outlawing dueling in Washington, D.C. was created
• The expulsion of members who participated in duels.

Griswold and Lyon fight

• a brawl resulted from personal attacks of character.
• The underlying cause of the conflict was Griswold's support of President John Adams' military preparations in the event of hostilities with France

Hammett Letter

• "Hammett Letter" was a significant document in Martin Van Buren's political career.
• The letter outlined his strong opposition to the immediate annexation of Texas.

Hartford Convention

• This was a series of meetings in Hartford, Connecticut in 1814 and 1815.
• Delegates were from the Federalist Party in New England.
• Delegates discussed the War of 1812 and the growing power of the federal government.

Discussed were:

• Secession

• Constitutional amendments

• They drafted seven amendments to strengthen state power:

  • Limit federal restrictions on foreign trade and shipping
  • Set stricter conditions for declaring war
  • Limit the influence of slaveholding states in Congress
  • Limit presidential power to one term

• Prohibit presidents from serving consecutive terms from the same state

Henry Papers/ Henry-Craig Plot

• The Henry Letters were correspondence by an adventurer named John Henry.
• Sir James Craig documented Henry's efforts to determine Federalist sympathies for the New England states to join the British Empire.
• The letters were fraudulent
• Historians have been sharply critical of Madison's actions.

High Federalists

• They were fervent supporters of Alexander Hamilton's policies.
• They shared practically all of the same beliefs as the Federalist party in general.
• Desirred to go to war with the French

Independent Treasury

• A US government system for managing money that operated from the 1840s to 1921
• It was an alternative to national banks that kept government funds separate from the banking system

Independent Treasury Act (1840)

• Separated the U.S. Treasury from commercial banks
• Passed at the request of President Martin Van Buren
• Intended to prevent inflation and stabilize the financial system
• All federal revenue be deposited in regional subtreasuries
• Payments to the government be made in gold or silver

Indian Removal Act/Process

• Signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in 1830
• Significant impact on Native American populations
• Authorized the government to negotiate treaties with Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River
• The "Trail of Tears" process was often brutal and involved coercion, leading to the infamous where many Native Americans died during the forced migration.

Inquiry into the Principles and Policy of the Government of the United States by John Taylor

• The major political treatise by Taylor, one of the Southern supporters of Jefferson, who opposed the centralization of power in the hands of the federal government

Internal Improvement

• A term investment in transportation projects such as roads, railroads, canals, harbors, and river navigation projects
• The purpose of the is to connect the states, encourage economic growth, and improve transportation

Jackson assassination attempt by Richard Lawrence

• On January 30, 1835, an unemployed house painter named Richard Lawrence attempted to assassinate President Andrew Jackson outside the U.S. Capitol
• Lawrence was later found not guilty by reason of insanity

Jackson-Benton duel

• In 1813, Andrew Jackson was injured in the duel
• Jesse Benton was left with a significant shoulder injury

Jacksonian Democracy

Themes

• Key Principles - Majority rule, The will of the people is absolute
• Common man, Wealthy elite
• Equality, Protection under law
• Limited government, Limit the power of federal government
• Opposition to aristocracy Exclusive Privileges
• Popular government Serve the best interests of the people

Jay Treaty

• Named after John Jay, the Chief Justice of the United States who negotiated it
• Granted Britain most-favored-nation status
• The first political parties in the United States emerged, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans

Jeffersonian Republicans

• the opposition group is built on the ideals of Thomas Jefferson
• This political party was additionally known as the “Democratic-Republicans” or “The Republican Party” due to their focus on Republican Democracy and individual liberties.
• The Jeffersonians attracted a wide base of support among rural Americans and farmers, which was most Americans

Judiciary Act of 1801

• An effort by which the Federalists could continue to control the federal courts.
• Set up 16 federal circuit courts with new judgeships.
• The law was repealed with the exception to Section 27
• Reduced the ability to make appointments in a new administration

Kentucky Resolution

• Drafted anonymously by Jefferson & Madison
• States can Nullify Federal laws

Know-Nothing Party

• The primary goal was to combat outside influence (from the Catholic Church)

The Liberator Locofocos Party

• This was a faction of the Democratic Party
• It existed from 1835 until the mid-1840s.
• It was originally named the Equal Rights Party.
• It was created in New York City as a protest.

Louisiana Purchase constitutionality debate

• The Constitution didn't explicitly give the federal government the power to buy foreign land.
• Federalists, argued authority lacking to acquire new territory It was determined the governments right to acquire

Missouri Compromise

• They temporarily resolved the issue.
• Maine would be a free state.
• Missouri would be a slave state.
• Slavery would be restricted in the rest of Louisiana.

Monroe Tour of New England (1817)

• The goal was to build patriotism.
• It was a huge success.
• It established the "Era of Good Feelings”.

Nashville Convention

• A meeting to talk about the expansion of slavery
• It preserved the union.

Nat Turner Insurrection

• A deadly slave revolt took place in Southampton County, Virginia on August 21-22, 1831.
• The revolt was quelled by militiamen and armed civilians.

National Gazette

• Democratic-Republican newspaper that was published in Philadelphia from 1791 to 1793.
• It established the roots of the political party system and partisan media in America

National Intelligencer

• It was the first newspaper published in the District of Columbia
• The newspaper covered national politics, including debates in Congress

National Republican Convention 1831

• It the first U.S. presidential nominating convention held by a major party. In previous presidential elections, parties had produced candidates through state conventions and caucuses held in state legislatures and in the U.S. Congress

National Republicans

• Supporters Adams in the 1824 elections
• They were known initially as Adams-Clay Republicans in the wake of the elections.

National Road

• This was a vital route for westward expansion.
• It provided people could travel by wagon and stagecoach.
• The states were still developing.
• Encourged trade between the Atlantic colonies and the West.

Necessary and Proper Clause

• Also known as the Elastic Clause