Early-Medieval India: Rajput Dynasties (650-1206 AD)

• The Early-Medieval Period in India occurred from 650-1206 AD.
• After Harshavardhana, the Rajputs rose to prominence.
• The Rajputs dominated Indian politics for around 500 years, beginning in the 7th century.

Important Rajput Kingdoms

• Chauhan/Chahaman of Delhi-Ajmer: Founded by Vasudeva and ruling from Delhi starting in the 7th century until 1192.
• Pratihara/Parihar of Kannauj: Founded by Nagabhatt-I and ruling from Avanti and Kannauj from 730-1036.
• Pawar/Parmar of Malwa: Founded by Seeak-II and Sri Harsha, ruling from Ujjain and Dhar from 790-1150.
• Chaulukya/Solanki of Kathiyawar: Founded by Mularaja-I, ruling from Anihalvada from 942-1187.
• Rastrakuta of Malkhand: Founded by Dantidurg, ruling from Malkhand and Manyakheta from 752-973.
• Chandela of Jejakabhukti: Founded by Nannuk, ruling from Khajuraho, Mahoba, and Kalinjar from 831-1202.
• Kalchuri/Haihaya of Chedi: Founded by Kokkala-I, ruling from Tripuri from 850-1211.
• Gadhawal/Rathor of Kannauj: Founded by Chandradeva, ruling from Kannauj from 1090-1194.
• Tomar of Surrounding areas of Haryana and Delhi: Ruling from Dhillika.
• Guhilota/Sisodiya of Mewar: Founded by Bappa Rawal and Hammir-I, ruling from Chittor starting in the 8th century until 1930.

The Tripartite Struggle

• In the 8th century AD, the Palas, Gurjar-Partiharas, and Rashtrakutas fought for power in India.
• The main cause for the Tripartite Struggle was to control Kannauj, a symbol of sovereignty.
• The Palas ruled from 750-1150, with their capital at Muddagiri/Munger in Bihar.
• Gopala founded the Pala empire in 750 AD, and was succeeded by Dharmpala.
• Dharmpala revived Nalanda University and founded Vikramshila University.
• The Sena dynasty of Bengal succeeded the Pala dynasty, and Jayadeva, author of Gita Gobinda, was a court poet of Luxman Sen.
• The Pratiharas, also called Gurjara-Pratiharas, likely originated from Gujarat or South-West Rajasthan.
• Bhoja/Mihir Bhoja (836-882) was the greatest ruler of this dynasty and a devotee of Vishnu.
• Bhoja adopted the title of Adivarah.
• The Rashtrakutas ruled from 752-973.
• Dantidurg (752-756) founded the Rashtrakuta kingdom and fixed his capital at Malkhand/Malkhed.
• Govinda III (793-814) and Amoghvarsha (814-878) of the Rashtrakutas were the greatest rulers.
• Amoghvarsha ruled for 64 years and was an author, writing Kavirajamarga in Kannada.
• Krishna-I, a Rashtrakuta king, built the rock-cut Kailash temple at Ellora.
• Prithviraj Chauhan (1178-92) ruled over Delhi and Agra.
• Prithviraj Chauhan fought two battles: the First Battle of Tarain in 1191, where he defeated Mohammad Ghori, and the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, where he was defeated and slain.
• After the Second Battle of Tarain, the Kingdom of Delhi fell to Mohammad Ghori.
• Jai Chand Gadhawal/Rathor (1169-94) was killed by Mohammad Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar (1194).
• Rana Kumbha (1433-68) of Mewar defeated Mohammad Khilji and erected the Tower of Victory in Chittor.

Salient Features of the Rajputa Kingdoms

• India remained free of invasions but lost foreign contact.
• The caste system was rigid.
• The Rajputs were proud, warrior-like, hospitable, and built fortresses and temples.
• Examples of Rajput structures are the Khajuraho temples, Lingaraja temple, Sun temple, Jagannath temple, and Dilwara temple.
• The lack of unity, rigid caste system, and defective military organization caused the decline of the Rajputs.

South India (Cholas and Others)

• The Chola Empire existed from 850-1279 AD.
• The capital of the Chola Empire was Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram.
• Vijayalaya, a feudatory of the Pallavas initially, founded the Chola dynasty and captured Tanjore in 850 AD.
• Rajaraja (985-1014 AD) and Rajendra I (1014-1044 AD) were the greatest Chola rulers.
• Rajaraja constructed the Vrihadeshwar/Rajarajeshwar temple at Tanjore dedicated to Shiva.
• Rajendra I expanded the Chola empire into Orissa, Bengal, Burma, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola and built Gangaikondacholapuram.
• Rajendra III was recorded as the last ruler of the Chola dynasty.
• The Chola administration had a democratic style, where the king was the head of central authority.
• The Chola empire divided into Mandalams, Valanadu, Nadu, and Kurram.
• Local self-government was a key feature of the Chola administration.
• Land revenue and trade tax were the main sources of income.
• The Dravida style of architecture was prominent, exemplified by the Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram.
• The image-making, especially the Nataraja figure of Shiva, reached its peak.
• Kambana, who wrote Ramavataram, was on of greatest figures of Tamil poetry.
• Kambana, Kuttana, and Pugalendi were Tamil poets.
• The Vimana or the tall pyramidal tower dominated the temple structure, and Gopuram and Garbhagriha was an important structure.
• The best specimens are the temples of Vijayalaya, Choleshwara, the Nageshwara temple, the Koranganath temple and the Muvarakovitha temple.

Other Kingdoms of South India

• Western/Later Chalukyas (973-1200): Founded by Tailap-II, with their capital at Kalyani, Karnataka.
• Kakatiyas (1110-1326): Founded by Prolaraja-II, with their capital at Warangal, Andhra Pradesh.
• Yadavas (1187-1312): Founded by Bhillam-V, with their capital at Devagiri, Maharashtra.
• Hoyasalas (1173-1342): Founded by Vittigadev Vishnuvardhan, with their capital at Dwarasamudra, Karnataka.
• The Hoyasaleshwara temple at Dwarasamudra is the greatest achievement of Hoyasala art.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD)

Background

• Mohammad Bin Qasim's invasion in 712 AD led to the conquest of Sindh, which became a province of Omayyad Khilafat.
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni led 17 expeditions to India to plunder wealth, including the Somnath temple.
• Mahmud received the title 'Yamin-al-Dawla' from the Abbasid Caliph.
• Mohammad Ghori's invasion laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India.
• The reasons for the success of Turks in India were Rajputs lacked unity and organization, and the absence of a central government.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD)

• Mohammed Ghori's conquests formed the Delhi Sultanate, divided into five dynasties: the Slave, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodhi Dynasties.

Slave Dynasty (1206-90 AD)

• Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-10): A Turkish slave of Mohammad Ghori, he became the master of Hindustan and founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206, and received the title 'Lakh Bakhsh' for his generosity.
• Aibak died in 1210 playing Chaugan (Polo).
• Aibak constructed the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque at Delhi and the Adhai din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer.
• Aibak began construction of Qutub Minar named for Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• Aibak patronized writers like Hasan-un-Nizami and Fakhruddin.
• Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-36): Iltutmish, a slave of Aibak, became the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate and made Delhi the capital.
• Iltutmish saved the Delhi Sultanate from Chengiz Khan by refusing shelter to Jalaluddin Manglbarani.
• He introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the copper coin (jital) and the Iqta System.
• He set up the Chahalgani/Chalisa, a group of 40 nobles and completed the Qutub Minar
• Iltutmish patronized Minhaj-us-Siraj, the author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.
• Buknuddin (1236): Son of Iltutmish, crowned by his mother, Shah Turkan, and deposed by Razia.
• Razia Sultana (1236-40): Iltutmish's daughter, became the 'first and only Muslim lady who ever ruled India', until assassinated near Kaithal (Haryana).
• Bahram Shah (1240-42): The third son of Iltutmish, was put on the throne by the Chalisa.
• Masud Shah (1242-46): Son of Ruknuddin, deposed after a conspiracy by Balban and Nasiruddin Mahamud's Mother.
• Nasiruddin Mahamud (1246-66): The son of Iltutmish and was known as the Darvesi King.
• Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-87): Balban ascended the throne in 1266, restored the prestige of the crown and broke the power of Chalisa.
• Balban appointed spies, created a strong army, and established the military department Diwan-i-Arz.
• Balban took the title of Zil-i-Ilahi, and introduced Sijda and Paibos as forms of salutation.
• He destroyed the Mewati Rajputa brigandage and overlooked the Sultanate affairs in his last days, due to the death of his son and Tughril's rebellion.
• Kaiqubad (1287-90): Balban's grandson, was killed by the Khilji family.

The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)

• Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-96): Founded the Khilji dynasty.
• Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316): Alauddin killed Jalaluddin and was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics

Alauddin's Imperialism

• Alauddin annexed Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Mewar, Malwa, and Jalor.
• Malik Kafur led Alauddin's army in Deccan, defeating Ram Chandra, Pratap Rudradeva, Vir Ballal III, and Vir Pandya.

Alauddin's Administrative Reforms

• Alauddin issued 4 ordinances, including the confiscation of religious endowments and the prohibition of wine.
• He introduced the system of Dagh and Chehra.
• All land was measured and the share of the state was fixed, a special officer called Mustakharaj was created, and three markets were set up in Delhi.
• The check on market was kept by two officers-Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahna-i-Mandi
• All goods for sale were brought to an open market called Sara-i-Adal.
• He constructed the Alai fort, Alai Darwaja, and the Palace of thousand Pillars called Hazar Sutun
• Alauddin was a patron of art and learning, and Amir Khusrau was his court poet.
• In 1316, after Alauddin's death, Malik Kafur seized the throne, nominated Shihabuddin, and was killed by loyalists.
• Mubarak Khan (1316-20): He captured the throne and awarded his lover Mubarak Hassan authority over the Sultan's palace, and was killed by Khusrau Khan.
• Khusrau Khan (1320): Killed by Ghazi Malik, who assumed the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and founded the Tughlaq dynasty.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25): Ascended the throne assuming the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and died in an accident.
• Mohammad-bin Tughlaq (1325-51): Introduced administrative reforms, including taxation in the Doab, transfer of capital, and the introduction of token currency.
• Mohammad-bin Tughlaq created a new department of Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi.
• He transferred the capital from Delhi to Devagiri.
• He introduced token currency and planned the Khurasan Expedition
• Mohammed-bin Tughlaq launched the Qarachil Expedition .
• Mohammad-bin Tughlaq's last days were spent checking the revolts, and he died in Thatta while campaigning in Sindh against Taghi.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88): selected as the next Sultan.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq extended the principle of heredity to the army
• The new system of taxation stated there were Four kinds of taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed.
• These taxes were Kharaj, Zakat,Jizya and Khams. In order to encourage agriculture, the Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation.

He introduced the Haque-i-Sharb or Hasil-i-Sharb (water tax)

• Jaunpur was founded in the memory of Mohammad bin Tughlaq.
• Ashoka pillars were brought to Delhi.
• A new department of Diwan-i-Khairat was set up.he Sultan established at Delhi a hospital described as Dar-ul-Shifa,
• His rule was marked by peace and tranquillity.
• After Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1388-1414): The Malwa, Gujarat and Sharqi Kingdoms broke away from the Sultanate.
• Timur's Invasion : 1398-99-Timur invades India
• The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-50 AD): Khizr Khan was proclaimed the new Sultan.
• Mubarak Shah (1421-34) : He was killed by the nobles in his own court.
• Muhammad Shah(1434-43): The nobles putMuhammad Shah on the throne.
• Alam Shah (1443-51): descended in favour of Bahlol Lodhi and retired.

The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)

• Bahlol Lodhi (1451-88): Bahlol Lodhi was one of the Afghan Sardars..
• Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517:was the son of Bahlol Lodhi conquered.
• He shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him.
• Sikandar was a fanatical Muslim
• Ibrahim Lodhi 1517-26: He was the last king of the Lodhi dynasty and the last Sultan of Delhi..
• Ibrahim Lodhi was killed in the battle, and with him ended the Delhi Sultanate.
• Causes of Decline of Delhi Sultanate's are that the govenment was a desperatic and also they where a degeneration of Delhi Sultans.
• Mongolian Invasions During Delhi Sultanate that Chengiz Khan came up to the bank of Indus in 122 AD