Early Human Societies: Evolution and Life

• Early human societies saw large-scale change over long periods.
• Fossil remains, stone tools, and cave paintings help historians understand early humans.

The Evolutionary Journey

• Human evolution is a gradual process spanning millions of years.
• It began about 5.6 million years ago.
• Hominids evolved from primates.
• Large brain size, walking upright, and specialized hands define hominids.

Key Stages of Human Evolution

• Australopithecus: Early hominids discovered in Africa.
• Homo erectus: Known for standing upright and using fire.
• Homo sapiens: Modern humans belong to this species.

Early Human Life

• Hunter-gathering was the primary way early humans obtained food.
• Hunting animals and gathering plants provided sustenance.
• Stone, bone, and wood were used to create tools.
• Small, mobile communities were the norm.

Communication and Art

• Language and art were developed by early humans.
• Cave paintings reveal insights into early humans' beliefs and daily existence.
• A medium for communication and cultural expression was art.

The Neolithic Revolution

• A major turning point in human history.
• Agriculture and animal domestication were developed.
• New settlements and villages appeared.

Agriculture

• Humans could produce a surplus of sustenance thanks to farms.
• Larger populations and social hierarchies were supported by agriculture.
• Wheat, barley, and rice were among the first crops.

Domestication

• Animal domestication provided humans with meat, milk, and labor.
• Sheep, goats, and cattle were domesticated.
• Food supplies became more reliable, and economic activities changed.

Sedentary Life

• Settled life allowed for the construction of permanent houses and villages.
• New forms of social organization and governance emerged.
• Some people specialized in crafts and trade.

The Development of Writing

• Writing developed to record information and communicate ideas.
• Cuneiform and hieroglyphics are examples of early writing.
• Early state administration depended on writing.

Urbanization

• Urbanization is the growth of cities.
• Early cities appeared in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley.
• Trade, administration, and culture were all centered in cities.

Characteristics of Early Cities

• Large populations
• Monumental architecture
• Specialization of labor
• Social hierarchies
• Political institutions

Mesopotamia

• Mesopotamia is in the Fertile Crescent
• It has the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
• Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians are early Mesopotamian civilizations

Sumerian Civilization

• The Sumerians invented cuneiform writing
• They built ziggurats (temples)
• They set up city-states each with its own ruler

Babylonian Civilization

• Babylonians are famous for the Code of Hammurabi
• Hammurabi's Code is one of the earliest known legal codes
• It outlines laws and punishments for various offenses

Egyptian Civilization

• Egyptian civilization grew up along the Nile River
• The Nile provided fertile soil and water for agriculture
• The Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for their pharaohs

Pharaohs

• Pharaohs were seen as divine rulers
• They controlled the government, military, and religious organizations
• They oversaw major construction projects like pyramids and temples

Social Structure

• Egyptian society was hierarchical, with the pharaoh at the top
• Priests, nobles, and scribes were below the pharaoh
• Commoners, farmers, and slaves made up the majority of the population

Religion

• Egyptian religion was polytheistic, with many gods and goddesses
• They believed in the afterlife and had detailed burial rituals
• Mummification preserved bodies for the afterlife

Indus Valley Civilization

• The Indus Valley Civilization was in modern Pakistan and northwest India
• Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were major cities
• The civilization is known for its urban planning and sanitation

Urban Planning

• Indus cities were well-planned, with grid-like streets and brick houses
• They had advanced drainage systems and public baths
• Granaries stored surplus food

Trade

• The Indus Valley Civilization traded a lot with Mesopotamia and other regions
• Cotton, textiles, and pottery were traded
• Seals with inscriptions have been found in Mesopotamia, showing trade relations

Decline

• The reasons for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization are debated
• Possible factors include climate change, environmental degradation, and invasions
• The civilization declined around 1900 BCE

Nomadic Empires

• Steppe pastoralists lived in the Eurasian steppes
• They herded horses, sheep, and cattle
• They were skilled horsemen and warriors

The Mongol Empire

• The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in the 13th century
• It was the largest contiguous land empire ever
• The Mongols conquered large areas, including China, Central Asia, and parts of Europe

Genghis Khan

• Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and led them to conquer new lands
• He was a brilliant military strategist and administrator
• He created a legal code known as the Yassa

Mongol Military Tactics

• The Mongols were known for their cavalry skills and mobility
• They used psychological warfare to intimidate their enemies
• They were adept at siege warfare

Impact of the Mongol Empire

• The Mongol Empire boosted trade and cultural exchange between East and West
• The Silk Road thrived under Mongol rule
• The empire also spread diseases, like the Black Death

The Renaissance

• The Renaissance was a time of cultural and intellectual rebirth in Europe
• It started in Italy in the 14th century and spread
• The Renaissance had renewed interest in classical art, literature, and philosophy

Humanism

• Humanism was a key intellectual movement of the Renaissance
• Humanists emphasized the importance of human potential and achievement
• They studied classical texts and promoted education

Art and Architecture

• Renaissance art and architecture showed classical ideals of beauty and harmony
• Artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael made masterpieces
• Architects designed buildings with classical elements like columns and domes

Science and Technology

• The Renaissance had major advancements in science and technology
• Scientists like Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei made discoveries
• The printing press changed how information spread

The Reformation

• The Reformation was a religious movement that challenged the Catholic Church
• Martin Luther started the Reformation in 1517 with his Ninety-Five Theses
• The Reformation led to the rise of Protestantism

Martin Luther

• Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian
• He criticized the sale of indulgences and other practices of the Catholic Church
• He advocated for salvation through faith alone

Protestantism

• Protestantism includes denominations that split from the Catholic Church
• These included Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism
• Protestant reformers emphasized the Bible and individual conscience

The Scientific Revolution

• The Scientific Revolution was a time of major scientific advancements in Europe
• It began in the 16th century and continued through the 18th century
• Scientists questioned traditional views of the universe and made new theories based on experiment

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory
• The heliocentric theory says the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun
• This challenged the geocentric theory, which said the Earth was the center of the universe

Galileo Galilei

• Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer and physicist
• He used telescopes to support the heliocentric theory
• He was persecuted by the Catholic Church for his views

Isaac Newton

• Isaac Newton created the laws of motion and universal gravitation
• He made major contributions to mathematics and physics
• His work helped create modern science

The Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment was an important intellectual and cultural movement in the 18th century
• It focused on reason, individualism, and human rights
• Enlightenment thinkers questioned authority and supported reform

Key Enlightenment Thinkers

• John Locke: Advocated for natural rights and limited government
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Emphasized the social contract and popular sovereignty
• Montesquieu: Promoted the separation of powers

Impact of the Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment influenced political revolutions in America and France
• It led to reforms in education, law, and government
• It promoted the spread of democratic ideals

Industrial Revolution

• The Industrial Revolution brought major technological and economic change
• It began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread
• New machines and factories were developed

Key Inventions

• The steam engine, invented by James Watt
• The power loom, used for weaving textiles
• The cotton gin, which separated cotton fibers from seeds

Impact of the Industrial Revolution

• The Industrial Revolution increased production and economic growth
• It created new jobs
• It caused urbanization and social problems, like pollution and poverty

Colonialism and Imperialism

• Colonialism is establishing colonies in one territory by people from another
• Imperialism is extending a country's power through colonization or military force
• European powers set up colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas

Motives for Colonialism

• Economic motives: Access to raw materials and new markets
• Political motives: Competition among European powers
• Cultural motives: The desire to spread Christianity and Western culture

Impact of Colonialism

• Colonialism led to the exploitation of resources and labor in colonies
• It imposed Western culture and political systems
• It created lasting inequalities and conflicts

Decolonization

• Decolonization is when colonies gain independence
• It occurred after World War II
• Many new nations struggled to build stable governments and economies