Early Delhi and the Delhi Sultanate

• Delhi became a prominent city in the twelfth century
• Prior to this, centers such as the Kaveri delta held more significance

Early Rulers of Delhi

• Delhi first became a capital under the Tomara Rajputs
• The Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer defeated the Tomaras in the mid-12th century
• The Tomaras and Chauhans transformed Delhi into an important commercial center
• Rich Jaina merchants settled in Delhi and constructed temples
• Coins called 'dehliwal' were minted and circulated widely

Delhi Sultanate

• The transformation of Delhi into a capital started with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century
• The Delhi Sultans constructed several cities in the region now known as Delhi
• Cities like Dehli-i Kuhna, Siri, and Jahanpanah were built during this time

Rulers of Delhi (Table 1)

• Rajput Dynasties:
• Tomaras ruled from the early 12th century until 1165
• Ananga Pala ruled 1130-1145
• Chauhans ruled from 1165 until 1192
• Prithviraj Chauhan ruled 1175-1192
• Early Turkish Rulers:
• Qutbuddin Aybak ruled 1206-1210
• Khalji Dynasty ruled 1290-1320
• Tughluq Dynasty ruled 1320-1414
• Sayyid Dynasty ruled 1414-1451
• Khizr Khan Ruled 1414-1421
• Lodi Dynasty ruled 1451-1526

Administration under the Delhi Sultans

• Histories from this period are known as 'tarikh' (singular) and 'tawarikh' (plural) written in Persian
• 'Tawarikh' authors were learned men, including secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers
• They advised rulers on governance, emphasizing justice

Perspectives on Governance

• Fakhr-i Mudabbir, in the 13th century, stated that a king needs soldiers
• Soldiers need salaries which are paid from peasant revenue, thus peasants must be prosperous and happy
• This requires just and honest governance

Qualities for an Ideal Ruler

• Authors of 'tawarikh' lived mainly in Delhi, rarely in villages
• Their histories were written for Sultans, hoping for rewards
• They promoted an ideal social order based on birthright and gender distinctions

Raziyya's Reign

• In 1236, Sultan Iltutmish's daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan
• Minhaj-us-Siraj recognized her abilities but felt uncomfortable with a queen
• Nobles were also unhappy, and she was removed from the throne in 1240

Contrasting Views on Raziyya

• Minhaj-us-Siraj believed a queen's rule went against God's order
• God subordinate woman to man with ideal qualities
• Raziyya mentioned being Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter on her inscriptions and coins
• Rudramadevi (Kakatiya dynasty) pretended to be a man
• Queen Didda (Kashmir) held the title "didi" or "elder sister"

Khalji and Tughluq Administration

• Early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, preferred slaves (bandagan) for military service
• These slaves were trained for important political offices
• Sultans trusted slaves due to their dependence on the master
• They also raised people of humble birth to high political positions
• Employing clients introduced instability because they were loyal to their masters, not their heirs
• The Delhi Sultans' patronage of humble people was criticized by Persian 'tawarikh' authors
• They criticized the Delhi Sultans for appointing the “low and base-born” to high offices

Sultan Muhammad Tughluq's Officials

• Sultan Muhammad Tughluq appointed:
• Aziz Khummar (wine distiller)
• Firuz Hajjam (barber)
• Manka Tabbakh (cook)
• Ladha and Pira (gardeners)
• All to high administrative posts

Criticisms of Tughluq's Appointments

• Ziyauddin Barani viewed these appointments as a sign of the Sultan's loss of judgment

Military Commanders and Territories

• Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors
• Land was called 'iqta' with holders called 'Iqtadar' or 'muqti'
• The 'muqtis' duty was to lead military campaigns and maintain order
• In exchange for military service, the ‘muqtis’ collected revenue as salary and paid their soldiers

Controlling the 'Muqtis'

• Control of 'muqtis' was more effective if the office was not inheritable
• The office would need to be assigned for a short, rotated period of time
• Harsh conditions were enforced during Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq's reigns
• Accountants were appointed to monitor revenue collection by the 'muqtis'

Land Control and Taxation

• Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of cities under control
• Landed chieftains (samanta aristocrats) and landlords had to accept authority
• Under Alauddin Khalji, the state controlled land revenue assessment and collection
• Local chieftains' rights to levy taxes were cancelled and they were forced to pay taxes
• Land was measured and accounts were kept by the Sultan's administrators
• Old chieftains and landlords served the Sultanate as revenue collectors and assessors

Types of Taxes

• Three types of taxes were implemented:
• 'Kharaj' on cultivation (50% of peasant's produce)
• Taxes on cattle
• Taxes on houses

Areas Outside Delhi Sultanate Control

• Large parts of the subcontinent remained outside Delhi Sultans' control
• It was difficult to control distant provinces like Bengal
• Southern India became independent soon after annexation

Sultanate Forces

• Forested areas were impenetrable for Sultanate forces
• Local chieftains established rule in these regions
• Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq sometimes exerted control for short durations

Chieftain Fortifications

• Ibn Battuta described chieftains fortifying in mountains, rocky places, and bamboo groves

Mongol Invasions

• The Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in 1219
• The Delhi Sultanate faced Mongol attacks, especially during Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq
• This forced the rulers to mobilize a large standing army

Decline of the Sultanate

• After the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526
• Independent rulers established flourishing states, including Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and south India
• New ruling groups like Afghans and Rajputs emerged

Sher Shah Sur's Rule

• Some states were small, powerful, and well administered
• Sher Shah Sur (1540–1545) started as a manager for his uncle in Bihar
• Sher Shah Sur challenged and defeated Mughal emperor Humayun in 1540

Sur Dynasty

• Although the Sur dynasty ruled for only fifteen years (1540-1555)
• Administration borrowed elements from Alauddin Khalji
• Sher Shah's administration became the model followed by Emperor Akbar

Other Taxes Levied

• Other taxes levied by the Delhi Sultanate
• Khums was one-fifth of war booty and one-fifth on mines and treasure trove
• Zakat was one of the religious duties levied upon all Muslims.
• Usually 40th part of annual savings for the needy and travellers
• Jizyah was a tax paid by non-Muslims (zimmis)
• Initially collected along with the land tax (kharaj)
• Firuz Shah Tughlaq collected jizya as a separate tax