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Questions and Answers

Blood is a liquid connective tissue that consists of cells surrounded by a liquid extracellular matrix called ______.

plasma

The primary function of Red Blood Cells is to transport ______ and carbon dioxide.

oxygen

Erythropoiesis occurs in the red bone marrow and involves the production of ______.

RBCs

Hormones and enzymes that regulate bodily functions are classified as ______ molecules transported in the blood.

<p>regulatory</p> Signup and view all the answers

The normal pH range of blood is approximately ______ to 7.45.

<p>7.35</p> Signup and view all the answers

Platelets adhere to damaged blood vessels, particularly to ______ fibers.

<p>collagen</p> Signup and view all the answers

The release of ADP and Thromboxane A2 by activated platelets helps to activate nearby ______.

<p>platelets</p> Signup and view all the answers

Platelet aggregation is enhanced by ADP making other platelets in the area ______.

<p>sticky</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hemopoiesis is the continuous process of renewal and differentiation of all ______ cells.

<p>blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

The primary site of hemopoiesis in adults is the ______ marrow.

<p>bone</p> Signup and view all the answers

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone that increases the number of red blood cell ______.

<p>precursors</p> Signup and view all the answers

Thrombopoietin (TPO) stimulates the formation of platelets from ______.

<p>megakaryocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

Antigens are glycoproteins and glycolipids found on the cell ______.

<p>surface</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cytokines such as Colony Stimulating Factor and Interleukins are important for stimulating ______ cell formation.

<p>white blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

The process of hemopoiesis continues in the ______ after birth throughout life.

<p>red marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

The primary protein that binds ______ and is responsible for the red color of red blood cells is hemoglobin.

<p>oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mature red blood cells are ______ and lack a nucleus.

<p>non-nucleated</p> Signup and view all the answers

Red blood cells have a life span of approximately ______ days.

<p>120</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ ions serve as the major form of carbon dioxide transported in the blood.

<p>Bicarbonate</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the case of hypoxia, erythropoietin is released by the ______ to stimulate RBC production.

<p>kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

The type of white blood cells that are granular and primarily respond to bacterial infections is called ______.

<p>neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

The smooth muscle contraction and allergic reaction initiated by ______ granules are due to the histamine contained in basophils.

<p>histamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

The primary function of ______ is to neutralize basophil and mast cell products and kill parasites.

<p>eosinophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

Each heme group in hemoglobin contains one ______ atom, which is vital for oxygen binding.

<p>iron</p> Signup and view all the answers

White blood cells that do not contain hemoglobin can be classified as ______ leukocytes.

<p>agranular</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Hematology

  • The study of blood, blood-forming tissues, and associated disorders.

Blood

  • Classified as a liquid connective tissue containing cells suspended within a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma.
  • Interstitial fluid bathes body cells.
  • Functions of blood:
    • Transport gases, nutrients, and waste products.
    • Transport processed molecules (e.g., Vitamin D).
    • Transport regulatory molecules (e.g., hormones and enzymes).
    • Regulate pH (normal: pH 7.35–7.45) and osmosis (maintains fluid and ion balance).
    • Maintain body temperature.
    • Protect against foreign substances.
    • Form clots.

Blood Composition

  • Plasma
  • Formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets)

Total Blood Volume (Adult)

  • Male: 5-6L
  • Female: 4-5L

Plasma

  • Makes up about 55% of blood volume.
  • A straw-colored liquid containing water (92%), dissolved substances (e.g., plasma proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, waste, hormones, enzymes)

Formed Elements

  • Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
    • Erythropoiesis: Production of red blood cells in red bone marrow.
    • Erythropoietin (EPO): Hormone produced by the kidneys, responsible for red blood cell production.
    • Biconcave disk shape.
    • Mature red blood cells are non-nucleated.
    • Lifespan: 120 days.
    • Spleen is the "graveyard" of senescent red blood cells.
    • Hemoglobin: Primary protein responsible for oxygen binding and the cell’s red color.
    • Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to body cells and delivers carbon dioxide from body cells to the lungs.
    • Hemoglobin structure: Consists of four globin proteins (2 alpha; 2 beta) and four heme groups (1:1 ratio).
    • Each heme contains one iron atom, which is necessary for normal hemoglobin function.
    • Each iron in a heme molecule can reversibly bind one oxygen molecule.
    • Each globin can reversibly bind with one carbon dioxide molecule.
    • 2/3 of body iron is in the hemoglobin.
    • Oxygenated blood: Bright red.
    • Deoxygenated blood: Dark red.
  • White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
    • Nucleated and do not contain hemoglobin.
    • Classified as granular or agranular.
    • Granular Leukocyte
      • Neutrophil
        • 10-15 µm diameter.
        • Nucleus: 2-5 lobes connected by thin strands of nuclear material.
        • Cytoplasm: Neutral staining.
        • Primary granule: Myeloperoxidase.
        • Primary responder in bacterial infection.
      • Eosinophil
        • 12-15 µm diameter.
        • Nucleus: Bilobed or ellipsoidal, eccentrically located.
        • Cytoplasm: Orange to reddish-orange.
        • Neutralizes basophil and mast cell products.
        • Kills parasites and responds to allergy.
      • Basophil
        • 10-15 µm diameter.
        • Cytoplasm: Deep-bluish-purple.
        • Primary Granules: Histamine.
        • Contains histamine granules that contract smooth muscle and cause allergic reactions.
    • Agranular Leukocyte
      • Lymphocyte
        • Increased numbers are diagnostic for acute viral infections and some immunodeficiency diseases.
  • Platelet Plug Formation
    • Platelet Adhesion
      • Platelets contact and stick to damaged blood vessels, specifically collagen fibers of the connective tissue underlying the damaged endothelial cells.
    • Platelet Release Reaction
      • Platelets are activated upon contact with collagen and release their contents.
        • ADP and Thromboxane A2: Activate nearby platelets.
        • Serotonin and Thromboxane A2: Cause vasoconstriction, decreasing blood flow through the injured vessel.
    • Platelet Aggregation
      • ADP makes other platelets sticky, and the stickiness of the newly recruited and activated platelets causes them to adhere to the originally activated platelets.

Hemopoiesis

  • Continuous, regulated process of renewal, proliferation, differentiation, and maturation of all blood cells.
  • Embryonic
    • Mesoblastic Phase.
    • Hepatic Phase.
    • Myeloid.
  • Adult
    • Medullary (Bone marrow).
    • Extramedullary (Liver).

Medullary Hemopoiesis

  • Red Bone Marrow
    • Primary site of hemopoiesis in the last 3 months before birth and continues as the source of blood cells after birth and throughout life.
    • Highly vascularized connective tissue located in the microscopic spaces between trabeculae of spongy bone tissue.
    • Bones with active marrow: Bones of the axial skeleton, pectoral and pelvic girdles, and the proximal epiphyses of the humerus and femur.
  • Pluripotent Stem Cell
    • Derived from mesenchyme.
    • Stem cells in red bone marrow that reproduce themselves, proliferate, and differentiate into cells that give rise to blood cells, macrophages, reticular cells, mast cells, and adipocytes.
    • Reticular fibers serve as a framework that supports the cells of red bone marrow.

Hemopoietic Growth Factors

  • Hormones that regulate the differentiation and proliferation of particular progenitor cells.
    • Erythropoietin (EPO)
      • Increases the number of red blood cell precursors.
      • Primarily produced by cells in the kidneys.
      • EPO production decreases in renal failure.
    • Thrombopoietin (TPO)
      • Hormone produced by the liver.
      • Stimulates the formation of platelets from megakaryocytes.
    • Cytokines
      • Produced by cells such as red bone marrow cells, leukocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells.
      • Colony Stimulating Factors and Interleukins: Two important families of cytokines that stimulate white blood cell formation.

Blood Groups and Blood Types

  • Antigens: Glycoproteins and glycolipids on cell surfaces.
  • Blood groups based on the presence or absence of various antigens on red blood cells.

Red Blood Cell Life Cycle

  • Hypoxia: Occurs if too little oxygen enters the blood (causes: anemia, high altitudes, circulatory problems).
  • Hypoxia stimulates the kidneys to release erythropoietin, increasing red blood cell production.

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