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Questions and Answers
Blood is a liquid connective tissue that consists of cells surrounded by a liquid extracellular matrix called ______.
plasma
The primary function of Red Blood Cells is to transport ______ and carbon dioxide.
oxygen
Erythropoiesis occurs in the red bone marrow and involves the production of ______.
RBCs
Hormones and enzymes that regulate bodily functions are classified as ______ molecules transported in the blood.
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The normal pH range of blood is approximately ______ to 7.45.
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Platelets adhere to damaged blood vessels, particularly to ______ fibers.
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The release of ADP and Thromboxane A2 by activated platelets helps to activate nearby ______.
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Platelet aggregation is enhanced by ADP making other platelets in the area ______.
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Hemopoiesis is the continuous process of renewal and differentiation of all ______ cells.
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The primary site of hemopoiesis in adults is the ______ marrow.
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Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone that increases the number of red blood cell ______.
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Thrombopoietin (TPO) stimulates the formation of platelets from ______.
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Antigens are glycoproteins and glycolipids found on the cell ______.
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Cytokines such as Colony Stimulating Factor and Interleukins are important for stimulating ______ cell formation.
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The process of hemopoiesis continues in the ______ after birth throughout life.
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The primary protein that binds ______ and is responsible for the red color of red blood cells is hemoglobin.
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Mature red blood cells are ______ and lack a nucleus.
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Red blood cells have a life span of approximately ______ days.
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______ ions serve as the major form of carbon dioxide transported in the blood.
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In the case of hypoxia, erythropoietin is released by the ______ to stimulate RBC production.
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The type of white blood cells that are granular and primarily respond to bacterial infections is called ______.
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The smooth muscle contraction and allergic reaction initiated by ______ granules are due to the histamine contained in basophils.
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The primary function of ______ is to neutralize basophil and mast cell products and kill parasites.
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Each heme group in hemoglobin contains one ______ atom, which is vital for oxygen binding.
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White blood cells that do not contain hemoglobin can be classified as ______ leukocytes.
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Study Notes
Hematology
- The study of blood, blood-forming tissues, and associated disorders.
Blood
- Classified as a liquid connective tissue containing cells suspended within a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma.
- Interstitial fluid bathes body cells.
- Functions of blood:
- Transport gases, nutrients, and waste products.
- Transport processed molecules (e.g., Vitamin D).
- Transport regulatory molecules (e.g., hormones and enzymes).
- Regulate pH (normal: pH 7.35–7.45) and osmosis (maintains fluid and ion balance).
- Maintain body temperature.
- Protect against foreign substances.
- Form clots.
Blood Composition
- Plasma
- Formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets)
Total Blood Volume (Adult)
- Male: 5-6L
- Female: 4-5L
Plasma
- Makes up about 55% of blood volume.
- A straw-colored liquid containing water (92%), dissolved substances (e.g., plasma proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, waste, hormones, enzymes)
Formed Elements
-
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
- Erythropoiesis: Production of red blood cells in red bone marrow.
- Erythropoietin (EPO): Hormone produced by the kidneys, responsible for red blood cell production.
- Biconcave disk shape.
- Mature red blood cells are non-nucleated.
- Lifespan: 120 days.
- Spleen is the "graveyard" of senescent red blood cells.
- Hemoglobin: Primary protein responsible for oxygen binding and the cell’s red color.
- Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to body cells and delivers carbon dioxide from body cells to the lungs.
- Hemoglobin structure: Consists of four globin proteins (2 alpha; 2 beta) and four heme groups (1:1 ratio).
- Each heme contains one iron atom, which is necessary for normal hemoglobin function.
- Each iron in a heme molecule can reversibly bind one oxygen molecule.
- Each globin can reversibly bind with one carbon dioxide molecule.
- 2/3 of body iron is in the hemoglobin.
- Oxygenated blood: Bright red.
- Deoxygenated blood: Dark red.
-
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- Nucleated and do not contain hemoglobin.
- Classified as granular or agranular.
-
Granular Leukocyte
-
Neutrophil
- 10-15 µm diameter.
- Nucleus: 2-5 lobes connected by thin strands of nuclear material.
- Cytoplasm: Neutral staining.
- Primary granule: Myeloperoxidase.
- Primary responder in bacterial infection.
-
Eosinophil
- 12-15 µm diameter.
- Nucleus: Bilobed or ellipsoidal, eccentrically located.
- Cytoplasm: Orange to reddish-orange.
- Neutralizes basophil and mast cell products.
- Kills parasites and responds to allergy.
-
Basophil
- 10-15 µm diameter.
- Cytoplasm: Deep-bluish-purple.
- Primary Granules: Histamine.
- Contains histamine granules that contract smooth muscle and cause allergic reactions.
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Neutrophil
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Agranular Leukocyte
-
Lymphocyte
- Increased numbers are diagnostic for acute viral infections and some immunodeficiency diseases.
-
Lymphocyte
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Platelet Plug Formation
-
Platelet Adhesion
- Platelets contact and stick to damaged blood vessels, specifically collagen fibers of the connective tissue underlying the damaged endothelial cells.
-
Platelet Release Reaction
- Platelets are activated upon contact with collagen and release their contents.
- ADP and Thromboxane A2: Activate nearby platelets.
- Serotonin and Thromboxane A2: Cause vasoconstriction, decreasing blood flow through the injured vessel.
- Platelets are activated upon contact with collagen and release their contents.
-
Platelet Aggregation
- ADP makes other platelets sticky, and the stickiness of the newly recruited and activated platelets causes them to adhere to the originally activated platelets.
-
Platelet Adhesion
Hemopoiesis
- Continuous, regulated process of renewal, proliferation, differentiation, and maturation of all blood cells.
-
Embryonic
- Mesoblastic Phase.
- Hepatic Phase.
- Myeloid.
-
Adult
- Medullary (Bone marrow).
- Extramedullary (Liver).
Medullary Hemopoiesis
-
Red Bone Marrow
- Primary site of hemopoiesis in the last 3 months before birth and continues as the source of blood cells after birth and throughout life.
- Highly vascularized connective tissue located in the microscopic spaces between trabeculae of spongy bone tissue.
- Bones with active marrow: Bones of the axial skeleton, pectoral and pelvic girdles, and the proximal epiphyses of the humerus and femur.
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Pluripotent Stem Cell
- Derived from mesenchyme.
- Stem cells in red bone marrow that reproduce themselves, proliferate, and differentiate into cells that give rise to blood cells, macrophages, reticular cells, mast cells, and adipocytes.
- Reticular fibers serve as a framework that supports the cells of red bone marrow.
Hemopoietic Growth Factors
- Hormones that regulate the differentiation and proliferation of particular progenitor cells.
-
Erythropoietin (EPO)
- Increases the number of red blood cell precursors.
- Primarily produced by cells in the kidneys.
- EPO production decreases in renal failure.
-
Thrombopoietin (TPO)
- Hormone produced by the liver.
- Stimulates the formation of platelets from megakaryocytes.
-
Cytokines
- Produced by cells such as red bone marrow cells, leukocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells.
- Colony Stimulating Factors and Interleukins: Two important families of cytokines that stimulate white blood cell formation.
-
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Blood Groups and Blood Types
- Antigens: Glycoproteins and glycolipids on cell surfaces.
- Blood groups based on the presence or absence of various antigens on red blood cells.
Red Blood Cell Life Cycle
- Hypoxia: Occurs if too little oxygen enters the blood (causes: anemia, high altitudes, circulatory problems).
- Hypoxia stimulates the kidneys to release erythropoietin, increasing red blood cell production.
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