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Questions and Answers

What does the attentional spotlight focus on?

Multiple areas of the environment simultaneously

Every moving object in the visual field

One part of the environment at a time (correct)

Unconscious processes exclusively

How does cueing affect reaction times when a target appears in the cued location?

It only increases accuracy, not speed

It has no effect on detection time

It decreases the detection time significantly (correct)

It distracts attention from the cued target

What defines the cocktail party effect in auditory attention?

The ability to ignore all background conversations

The total inability to recall conversations in noisy environments

The ability to identify a single conversation based on physical characteristics (correct)

The focus on visual stimuli over auditory information

In the Single Filter Model, what determines which information is processed further?

The physical characteristics of the information Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the Dichotic Listening Paradigm?

Different messages are presented to each ear Signup and view all the answers

How does the Dual Filter Model differ from the Single Filter Model?

It includes an additional semantic filter Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the attentional spotlight is directed towards an uncued location?

Targets in that location are often missed Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of filters in the context of attention?

To discriminate between different types of sensory input Signup and view all the answers

What is the degree of choice in behavior primarily concerned with?

The extent of personal versus assigned choices Signup and view all the answers

What does the consistency variable in Covariation Theory assess?

Whether an individual's behavior is typical for them in a specific context Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best represents the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)?

Under-valuing situational factors when judging others' actions Signup and view all the answers

What does distinctiveness in Covariation Theory indicate?

Whether the behavior is situational or dispositional Signup and view all the answers

How does cultural context influence the attribution of behavior?

Individualist cultures often emphasize personal factors over situational ones Signup and view all the answers

What is the actor-observer effect primarily concerned with?

Attributing one’s own behavior to situational contexts Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the consensus variable in Covariation Theory?

It examines if others behave similarly in the same situation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary influence behind situational attribution according to the Covariation Theory?

Environmental factors acting on the individual Signup and view all the answers

What is the main benefit of using distributed practice over massed practice?

It leads to longer retention of knowledge and skills. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes interleaved practice?

Studying multiple subjects or topics in a random order. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential negative aspect of distributed practice?

It can be perceived as more difficult by learners. Signup and view all the answers

How does self-explanation help students?

It improves their understanding of new problems. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about elaborative interrogation is true?

It involves questioning the validity of a statement. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the effect of interleaved practice on exam performance?

It improves performance compared to massed practice. Signup and view all the answers

What type of practice is characterized by studying new material alongside previously learned material in smaller intervals?

Distributed practice Signup and view all the answers

Which practice strategy has been shown to slow learning but leads to greater retention in the long term?

Interleaved practice Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary advantage of a within-subjects design?

It minimizes external variables affecting the dependent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential issue with within-subjects designs?

Participants experience improvements due to practice effects. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a confounding variable?

A variable that influences the results but is not the independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of random sampling?

To reduce bias and ensure the sample represents the population. Signup and view all the answers

How can participant bias affect an experiment?

It may skew the results based on the participants' actions. Signup and view all the answers

What does blinding in an experiment refer to?

An approach in which participants are unaware of their group assignment. Signup and view all the answers

What is known as the placebo effect?

When participants show a response to a treatment without active therapeutic effects. Signup and view all the answers

What is a double-blind experiment designed to prevent?

Experimenter bias and participant bias. Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental attribution error?

Under-estimating situational attributes and over-estimating dispositional attributes. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes self-serving bias?

Evaluating personal successes as due to personal abilities, while attributing failures to situational factors. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following illustrates the availability heuristic?

Believing accidents are more likely to happen than strokes based on media coverage. Signup and view all the answers

What is the actor-observer effect?

Recognizing situational factors in one's own actions but attributing others' actions to their personality. Signup and view all the answers

What does the false consensus effect refer to?

Overestimating the extent to which others agree with your opinions. Signup and view all the answers

What is representative heuristics primarily based on?

Judging outcomes based on their similarity to a known category. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor influences attraction according to the content provided?

Low self-esteem may lead to being attracted to those who reciprocate. Signup and view all the answers

What effect did Harlow's study on monkeys exhibit?

Monkeys that experienced isolation tended to abuse their infants after becoming mothers. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason individuals conform to group norms?

To seek approval from peers Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the loss of individuality when part of a crowd?

Deindividualization Signup and view all the answers

In Zajonc's findings, how does the presence of others affect performance on different tasks?

Improves performance on simple tasks and decreases it on complex tasks Signup and view all the answers

What is a common consequence of social loafing in group situations?

Reduced overall productivity Signup and view all the answers

What effect does group polarization typically have on group decisions?

It strengthens the group's initial inclinations Signup and view all the answers

What triggers groupthink in a group setting?

High cohesion and a directive leader Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following concepts refers to the expectation that we should return favors?

Norm of reciprocity Signup and view all the answers

What does the empathy-altruism hypothesis suggest about altruistic behavior?

It results from feelings of empathy for others Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Research Methods I

A theory is a general set of ideas about how the world works.
A hypothesis is a testable statement guided by theories that makes predictions between two variables.
A research method is how the hypothesis is tested.
Data is collected by taking measurements of the outcomes of the test.
Data is analyzed to discover trends/relationships between variables.
Findings are reported in articles published in scholarly journals.
Theories are revised based on new information and revisions.
A paradigm shift is a dramatic change in the way we think.

Hypothesis In-Depth

Anecdotal evidence is evidence gathered from others or self-experience.
Problems with anecdotal evidence:
- A single experience might not properly represent the theory.
- Personal experiences might not represent others.
- Not certain about one factor affecting the results.
An experiment is a scientific tool used to measure the effect of one variable on another.
The independent variable is manipulated by the scientist.
The dependent variable is observed by the scientist.
The experimenter usually controls the level of the independent variable, and also measures its effect on the chosen measure of the independent variable.

Control Groups

Help further manipulate the independent variable while measuring the effects on the dependent variable.
The experimental group receives the manipulation.
The control group does not receive the manipulation.
Comparisons between the two groups help determine if the manipulation of the independent variable is the cause of any differences observed.
Both groups should be as similar as possible, to minimize any differences, and to avoid biases.
If a difference is found, it is likely that the manipulation of the independent variable was the cause.

Experimental Designs

Within-subjects design:
- Manipulates the independent variable within each participant to minimize external variable effects.
- Minimizes subject differences on the dependent measure.
- Can be time-consuming and costly.
- Practice effects may be an issue.
Between-subjects design:
- One group receives experimental manipulation; the other is the control group.
- A confounding variable, other than the independent variable, may affect the results.

Sampling

Results from a specific group of participants cannot be generalized to other groups.
Population refers to the people being studied.
A sample is a subset of the population from which data is collected.
A random sample is the best sample; this ensures that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Research Methods II

Statistics present information to summarize, interpret, and present data.
Descriptive statistics give an overview of the data (e.g., mean, median, mode)

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean: Average value, calculated by summing all data points and dividing by the total count; sensitive to outliers.
Mode: The most frequently occurring value; useful for non-numerical data.
Median: The middle value when data is sorted; not affected by outliers.

Measures of Variability

Standard Deviation measures average distance of each data point from the mean. Smaller spread=smaller SD, larger spread=larger SD.

Inferential Statistics

Allow inferences about overall populations from sample results.
Scores without manipulation of variable follow a symmetrical distribution.
A t-test compares differences between control and experimental groups to determine probability that the samples originate from the same population.
P-value from a t-test expresses the probability of observed difference being due to chance.
Statistical significance exists when probability of a difference due to chance is less than 5% (p<.05).

Observational Research

Observes the effect of variables without performing any manipulation.
Correlation (r):
- +1 = perfect positive correlation
- -1 = perfect negative correlation
- 0 = no correlation
Correlation doesn't imply causation

Textbook Readings

Operational definitions: in psychological research, must be objectively measurable.
Asking questions and methods of analysis: choices made must be guided by the level of analysis.
Basic principles of scientific inquiry: parsimony, natural order, generalizability, and conservatism.
Empiricism and objectivity: knowledge should be based on actual observation, and not just on reason.
Inductive reasoning: making generalizations from specific observations.
Deductive reasoning: using general statements to reach specific conclusions.
Correlation studies: measure the direction and strength of the relationship between variables. (positive correlation: increasing values of one variable are associated with increasing values of the other; negative correlation: increasing values of one variable are associated with decreasing values of the other; zero correlation: no relationship)

Correlational Studies, Experiments, and Research Methods

Experiments: procedures systematically study a problem in psychology using independent and dependent variables.
Independent variables: manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variables: measured by the researcher.
Experimental designs: within-subjects and between-subjects.
Sample/population: group of individuals used in a study vs. broad group; generalization of results to other people..
Case studies: provide in-depth information; not typically generalizable to other populations.
Direct observation: good for studying long periods or behaviors difficult to observe directly.
Interviews: allow further investigation of specific behaviours, but may be subject to social desirability bias.
Questionnaires: simple to collect data; can be less truthful; should be done correctly for data to be admissible.

Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US): Any stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
Unconditioned response (UR): The natural response triggered by the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus (CS): An initially neutral stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.
Conditioned response (CR): The learned response triggered by the conditioned stimulus.
Acquisition: Process by which a contingency between the CS and US is learned.
Extinction: When a conditional response weakens because the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the US.
Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a period of rest.
Stimulus generalization: Responding to stimuli that are similar to the CS.
Stimulus discrimination: Responding only to the specific CS.

Learning and Drugs

Learning: Relatively enduring change in behaviour due to experience.
Pavlov: reflexive responses.
Watson: prediction/control of behaviour.
Skinner: prediction/control of behaviour.

Operant Conditioning

Learn through consequences of behaviour (reinforcement, punishment).
Reward training: Presentation of a reinforcer to increase a behaviour's frequency.
Punishment training: Presentation of a negative reinforcer to decrease the frequency of a behaviour.
Omission training: Removal of a positive reinforcer to reduce the frequency of a behaviour.
Escape training: Removal of a negative reinforcer to increase the behaviour.

Graphing Responses

A cumulative recorder visualizes responses.
Autoshaping – animal learns behaviour without any direct guidance.
Shaping – successive approximations gradual training.

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

Signals when a contingency between a response and a reinforcement is "on."
Signals when a contingency is not valid.
Training with SD/S leads to better discrimination.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement: A response is reinforced every time.
Partial reinforcement: A response is reinforced intermittently.
- Ratio schedules: Based on the number of responses.
- Interval schedules: Based on the time since the last response.
- Fixed schedules: Consistent conditions.
- Variable schedules: Varying conditions

Learning Strategies

Practice testing: boosts long-term memory, leading to better decision-making regarding what further practice is necessary..
Distributed practice: spreading study sessions over time.
Interleaved practice: mixing different types of problems in study sessions.
Elaborative interrogation: explaining why a fact is true.
Self-explanation: relating new information to existing knowledge.
Rereading/Highlighting: only effective for short-term learning.

Where To Study

Multi-tasking is inefficient.
Noise and distractions hinder learning.
Special software can help stay on task when using electronics.
The Pomodoro Technique (25 minutes of work followed by a 5-minute break)

Memories

Sensory Memory: Iconic and echoic; visual and auditory sensory traces
Short-term memory (STM) or Working Memory: Information actively maintained for immediate use (~20 seconds without rehearsal, ~7±2 items).
Long-term Memory (LTM): Information stored for long-term retention and use.
- Declarative Memory: Factual and episodic memory, conscious recall.
- Procedural Memory: Automatic skills, implicit, subconscious.
Encoding Specificity: Memory encodes context associated with information. Environment/context cues can serve as retrieval cues.
Proactive interference: Earlier learnt things interfere with learning new information
Retroactive Interference: Newly learnt things, interfere with retrieving earlier memories.
Misinformation effect: Incorporating incorrect information into memory.
Source monitoring error: Mistaking the origin of information.

Cognitive Dissonance

It exists when thoughts conflict with behavior.
People attempt to reduce dissonance; change behavior, attitude, or add new cognitive elements.
Example: justifying behavior, even if it contradicts attitudes (e.g., in the Stanford Prison Experiment, guards escalating abuse despite internal feelings of discomfort).

Presence of Others: Mere presence of others can impact performance.
Social Loafing: Individuals exerting less effort in groups compared to alone. -
Group Polarization: Group decisions tend to shift to more extreme positions than original individual inclinations.
Group Think: Group cohesiveness overriding rational decision-making processes (e.g., poor decisions made).
Bystander effect: Reduced individual responsibility and likelihood of intervention when others are present in emergency situations(e.g., the Kitty Genovese murder).

Attribution Theories

Making inferences about causes
Correspondence Inference Theory: Focuses on choices and intended consequences to determine if behaviour is dispositional or situational.
Covariation Theory: Assesses consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of behaviour to identify sources.

Cognitive Heuristics

Representative Heuristic: Judging if something fits a prototype.
Availability Heuristic: Assessing likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind; influenced by exposure rather than true probability.

Stereotypes & Prejudice

Stereotypes – beliefs about particular groups of people.
Prejudice is attitudinal/emotional component towards a group.
Discrimination is negative behavior directed towards group members.

The Stroop Effect

The Stroop effect tests how cognitive load influences speed of reaction..
Automatic processing (reading words) interferes with controlled processing (naming colours)..
Interference increases when word and colour mismatch.

Visual Search

Search patterns for targets among distractors.
Pop-out effect: effortless detection of targets with unique features.
Conjunctive search: Requires simultaneously searching for targets based on multiple features.
Set size affects search time in conjunctive searches, but not pop-out searches.

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