Untitled Quiz

Research Methods I

• A theory is a general set of ideas about how the world works.
• A hypothesis is a testable statement guided by theories that makes predictions between two variables.
• A research method is how the hypothesis is tested.
• Data is collected by taking measurements of the outcomes of the test.
• Data is analyzed to discover trends/relationships between variables.
• Findings are reported in articles published in scholarly journals.
• Theories are revised based on new information and revisions.
• A paradigm shift is a dramatic change in the way we think.

Hypothesis In-Depth

• Anecdotal evidence is evidence gathered from others or self-experience.
• Problems with anecdotal evidence:
  • A single experience might not properly represent the theory.
  • Personal experiences might not represent others.
  • Not certain about one factor affecting the results.
• An experiment is a scientific tool used to measure the effect of one variable on another.
• The independent variable is manipulated by the scientist.
• The dependent variable is observed by the scientist.
• The experimenter usually controls the level of the independent variable, and also measures its effect on the chosen measure of the independent variable.

Control Groups

• Help further manipulate the independent variable while measuring the effects on the dependent variable.
• The experimental group receives the manipulation.
• The control group does not receive the manipulation.
• Comparisons between the two groups help determine if the manipulation of the independent variable is the cause of any differences observed.
• Both groups should be as similar as possible, to minimize any differences, and to avoid biases.
• If a difference is found, it is likely that the manipulation of the independent variable was the cause.

Experimental Designs

• Within-subjects design:
  • Manipulates the independent variable within each participant to minimize external variable effects.
  • Minimizes subject differences on the dependent measure.
  • Can be time-consuming and costly.
  • Practice effects may be an issue.
• Between-subjects design:
  • One group receives experimental manipulation; the other is the control group.
  • A confounding variable, other than the independent variable, may affect the results.

Sampling

• Results from a specific group of participants cannot be generalized to other groups.
• Population refers to the people being studied.
• A sample is a subset of the population from which data is collected.
• A random sample is the best sample; this ensures that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Research Methods II

• Statistics present information to summarize, interpret, and present data.
• Descriptive statistics give an overview of the data (e.g., mean, median, mode)

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean: Average value, calculated by summing all data points and dividing by the total count; sensitive to outliers.
• Mode: The most frequently occurring value; useful for non-numerical data.
• Median: The middle value when data is sorted; not affected by outliers.

Measures of Variability

• Standard Deviation measures average distance of each data point from the mean. Smaller spread=smaller SD, larger spread=larger SD.

Inferential Statistics

• Allow inferences about overall populations from sample results.
• Scores without manipulation of variable follow a symmetrical distribution.
• A t-test compares differences between control and experimental groups to determine probability that the samples originate from the same population.
• P-value from a t-test expresses the probability of observed difference being due to chance.
• Statistical significance exists when probability of a difference due to chance is less than 5% (p<.05).

Observational Research

• Observes the effect of variables without performing any manipulation.
• Correlation (r):
  • +1 = perfect positive correlation
  • -1 = perfect negative correlation
  • 0 = no correlation
• Correlation doesn't imply causation

Textbook Readings

• Operational definitions: in psychological research, must be objectively measurable.
• Asking questions and methods of analysis: choices made must be guided by the level of analysis.
• Basic principles of scientific inquiry: parsimony, natural order, generalizability, and conservatism.
• Empiricism and objectivity: knowledge should be based on actual observation, and not just on reason.
• Inductive reasoning: making generalizations from specific observations.
• Deductive reasoning: using general statements to reach specific conclusions.
• Correlation studies: measure the direction and strength of the relationship between variables. (positive correlation: increasing values of one variable are associated with increasing values of the other; negative correlation: increasing values of one variable are associated with decreasing values of the other; zero correlation: no relationship)

Correlational Studies, Experiments, and Research Methods

• Experiments: procedures systematically study a problem in psychology using independent and dependent variables.
• Independent variables: manipulated by the researcher.
• Dependent variables: measured by the researcher.
• Experimental designs: within-subjects and between-subjects.
• Sample/population: group of individuals used in a study vs. broad group; generalization of results to other people..
• Case studies: provide in-depth information; not typically generalizable to other populations.
• Direct observation: good for studying long periods or behaviors difficult to observe directly.
• Interviews: allow further investigation of specific behaviours, but may be subject to social desirability bias.
• Questionnaires: simple to collect data; can be less truthful; should be done correctly for data to be admissible.

Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned stimulus (US): Any stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
• Unconditioned response (UR): The natural response triggered by the unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): An initially neutral stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.
• Conditioned response (CR): The learned response triggered by the conditioned stimulus.
• Acquisition: Process by which a contingency between the CS and US is learned.
• Extinction: When a conditional response weakens because the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the US.
• Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a period of rest.
• Stimulus generalization: Responding to stimuli that are similar to the CS.
• Stimulus discrimination: Responding only to the specific CS.

Learning and Drugs

• Learning: Relatively enduring change in behaviour due to experience.
• Pavlov: reflexive responses.
• Watson: prediction/control of behaviour.
• Skinner: prediction/control of behaviour.

Operant Conditioning

• Learn through consequences of behaviour (reinforcement, punishment).
• Reward training: Presentation of a reinforcer to increase a behaviour's frequency.
• Punishment training: Presentation of a negative reinforcer to decrease the frequency of a behaviour.
• Omission training: Removal of a positive reinforcer to reduce the frequency of a behaviour.
• Escape training: Removal of a negative reinforcer to increase the behaviour.

Graphing Responses

• A cumulative recorder visualizes responses.
• Autoshaping – animal learns behaviour without any direct guidance.
• Shaping – successive approximations gradual training.

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

• Signals when a contingency between a response and a reinforcement is "on."
• Signals when a contingency is not valid.
• Training with SD/S leads to better discrimination.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement: A response is reinforced every time.
• Partial reinforcement: A response is reinforced intermittently.
  • Ratio schedules: Based on the number of responses.
  • Interval schedules: Based on the time since the last response.
  • Fixed schedules: Consistent conditions.
  • Variable schedules: Varying conditions

Learning Strategies

• Practice testing: boosts long-term memory, leading to better decision-making regarding what further practice is necessary..
• Distributed practice: spreading study sessions over time.
• Interleaved practice: mixing different types of problems in study sessions.
• Elaborative interrogation: explaining why a fact is true.
• Self-explanation: relating new information to existing knowledge.
• Rereading/Highlighting: only effective for short-term learning.

Where To Study

• Multi-tasking is inefficient.
• Noise and distractions hinder learning.
• Special software can help stay on task when using electronics.
• The Pomodoro Technique (25 minutes of work followed by a 5-minute break)

Memories

• Sensory Memory: Iconic and echoic; visual and auditory sensory traces
• Short-term memory (STM) or Working Memory: Information actively maintained for immediate use (~20 seconds without rehearsal, ~7±2 items).
• Long-term Memory (LTM): Information stored for long-term retention and use.
  • Declarative Memory: Factual and episodic memory, conscious recall.
  • Procedural Memory: Automatic skills, implicit, subconscious.
• Encoding Specificity: Memory encodes context associated with information. Environment/context cues can serve as retrieval cues.
• Proactive interference: Earlier learnt things interfere with learning new information
• Retroactive Interference: Newly learnt things, interfere with retrieving earlier memories.
• Misinformation effect: Incorporating incorrect information into memory.
• Source monitoring error: Mistaking the origin of information.

Cognitive Dissonance

• It exists when thoughts conflict with behavior.
• People attempt to reduce dissonance; change behavior, attitude, or add new cognitive elements.
• Example: justifying behavior, even if it contradicts attitudes (e.g., in the Stanford Prison Experiment, guards escalating abuse despite internal feelings of discomfort).

Social Influence

• Presence of Others: Mere presence of others can impact performance.
• Social Loafing: Individuals exerting less effort in groups compared to alone. -
• Group Polarization: Group decisions tend to shift to more extreme positions than original individual inclinations.
• Group Think: Group cohesiveness overriding rational decision-making processes (e.g., poor decisions made).
• Bystander effect: Reduced individual responsibility and likelihood of intervention when others are present in emergency situations(e.g., the Kitty Genovese murder).

Attribution Theories

• Making inferences about causes
• Correspondence Inference Theory: Focuses on choices and intended consequences to determine if behaviour is dispositional or situational.
• Covariation Theory: Assesses consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of behaviour to identify sources.

Cognitive Heuristics

• Representative Heuristic: Judging if something fits a prototype.
• Availability Heuristic: Assessing likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind; influenced by exposure rather than true probability.

Stereotypes & Prejudice

• Stereotypes – beliefs about particular groups of people.
• Prejudice is attitudinal/emotional component towards a group.
• Discrimination is negative behavior directed towards group members.

The Stroop Effect

• The Stroop effect tests how cognitive load influences speed of reaction..
• Automatic processing (reading words) interferes with controlled processing (naming colours)..
• Interference increases when word and colour mismatch.

Visual Search

• Search patterns for targets among distractors.
• Pop-out effect: effortless detection of targets with unique features.
• Conjunctive search: Requires simultaneously searching for targets based on multiple features.
• Set size affects search time in conjunctive searches, but not pop-out searches.