Untitled Quiz

Animal and Plant Cells: Share many common structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.
Plant Cells: Have additional structures: cell wall, chloroplasts, and vacuoles.
Nucleus: Contains DNA, the cell's genetic material, and controls cellular activities.
Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance that fills the cell, providing a medium for organelle function.
Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis, found both free in the cytoplasm and attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Network of interconnected membranes involved in protein synthesis (rough ER) and lipid metabolism (smooth ER).
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.
Mitochondria: Powerhouses of the cell, responsible for cellular respiration and ATP production.
Lysosomes: Contain enzymes that break down cellular waste and debris.
Peroxisomes: Involved in detoxification and lipid metabolism.
Cell Wall: Provides structural support and protection to plant cells.
Chloroplasts: Sites of photosynthesis, converting sunlight into chemical energy.
Vacuoles: Large storage compartments in plant cells, containing water and other substances.

Fluid: The phospholipid bilayer is constantly moving and rearranging, allowing for flexibility.
Mosaic: The membrane is composed of diverse molecules, including phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol, arranged in a mosaic pattern.

Permeable: Allows certain molecules to pass through freely.
Small: Small molecules can pass through more easily than large molecules.
Non-polar: Non-polar molecules pass through more easily than polar molecules.

Isotonic: A solution with equal solute concentration to the cell, resulting in no net water movement.
Hypertonic: A solution with higher solute concentration than the cell, causing water to move out of the cell.
Hypotonic: A solution with lower solute concentration than the cell, causing water to move into the cell.
Hypotonic Solution:
- Plant Cell: Will swell due to water intake but will not burst due to the cell wall.
- Animal Cell: May swell and burst due to lack of cell wall.
Hypertonic Solution:
- Plant Cell: Will lose water and shrink, potentially leading to plasmolysis
- Animal Cell: Will shrink and shrivel.
Osmotic Lysis: Bursting of a cell due to excessive water intake in a hypotonic solution. This primarily affects animal cells due to the lack of a rigid cell wall.
Plasmolysis: The shrinking of the cytoplasm away from the cell wall in a hypertonic solution, a process that primarily affects plant cells. This does not occur in animal cells.

Endogonic Reactions: Require energy input to proceed, have a positive ΔG (change in Gibbs free energy).
Exergonic Reactions: Release energy, have a negative ΔG.
Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy. It is an exergonic process.
Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input. It is an endogonic process.

Temperature (Tm): Enzymes have an optimal temperature range, activity increases with temperature up to a point, after which it denatures.
pH: Enzymes have an optimal pH range, deviating from this range can decrease activity or denature the enzyme.
Substrate Concentration: Activity increases with substrate concentration until it reaches a saturation point where all active sites are occupied.

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to the active site, competing with the substrate. Increasing substrate concentration can overcome this inhibition.
Non-competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site on the enzyme, changing its shape and preventing substrate binding. Increasing substrate concentration does not overcome this inhibition.

Oxidation: Loss of electrons, gain of oxygen, increase in oxidation state.
Reduction: Gain of electrons, loss of oxygen, decrease in oxidation state.
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP
- Oxidized: Glucose (C6H12O6)
- Reduced: Oxygen (O2)
- Reducing Agent: Glucose (C6H12O6)
- Oxidizing Agent: Oxygen (O2)

Major Steps:
- Glycolysis: Glucose is broken down into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
- Preparation Step: Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, producing 1 NADH.
- Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle): Acetyl-CoA is oxidized, producing 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, and 2 CO2.
- Electron Transport Chain: Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed along the electron transport chain to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Products: NADH, FADH2, ATP, CO2, H2O
NAD+ and FAD: Electron carriers, accepting electrons during oxidation and donating them during reduction.
Lack of FAD: Will impact the Krebs Cycle, as FADH2 is a critical electron carrier.
Electron Flow: From glucose to NADH to the electron transport chain to oxygen.
CO2 Production: Occurs during the preparation step and Krebs cycle.
Acetyl-CoA Production: Occurs during the preparation step.
ATP Production:
- Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP produced during glycolysis and 2 ATP produced during the Krebs Cycle.
- Oxidative phosphorylation: 28 ATP produced through the electron transport chain.
Proton Force: The potential energy stored across the inner mitochondrial membrane due to the proton gradient.
Electron Transfer and Chemiosmosis: Occur in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Oxygen Function: Final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, accepting electrons and protons to form water.

Oxygen Production: During the light reaction, water molecules are split, releasing oxygen. The oxygen atoms are derived from the water molecule.
Chlorophyll II Absorption: Leads to excitation of electrons in the chlorophyll and the initiation of electron transport.
Final Electron Acceptor for Photosystem I: NADP+ is the final electron acceptor, forming NADPH.
Pigment Molecule Function: Absorb light energy and transfer it to the reaction centers where photochemical reactions occur.
Linear Electron Flow Products: ATP, NADPH, and oxygen.
Calvin Cycle Function: To use ATP and NADPH from the light reaction to fix carbon dioxide and generate glucose.
Electron Flow Direction: From water molecules to photosystem II to photosystem I to NADP+.

Photosynthesis:
- Oxygen production: Chloroplasts.
- Activated chlorophyll donates an electron: Chloroplasts.
- Rubisco catalyzes carbon fixation: Chloroplasts.
Cellular Respiration:
- ATP production in animal cells: Mitochondria.
- Electron transportation in animal cells: Inner mitochondrial membrane.