Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which enzyme category transfers an amino group between substrates?
Which enzyme category transfers an amino group between substrates?
- Ligases
- Isomerases
- Transaminases (correct)
- Hydrolases
Which of the following enzymes is classified as a hydrolase?
Which of the following enzymes is classified as a hydrolase?
- Lipase (correct)
- Kinasese
- Transaminases
- Carboxylases
What is the primary function of ligases?
What is the primary function of ligases?
- Transferring phosphate groups
- Cleaving chemical bonds using water
- Catalyzing rearrangements of molecules
- Joining two substrates with covalent bonds (correct)
Which enzyme is responsible for the transfer of a phosphate group?
Which enzyme is responsible for the transfer of a phosphate group?
Which class of enzymes catalyzes structural rearrangements in a molecule?
Which class of enzymes catalyzes structural rearrangements in a molecule?
Which of the following enzymes catalyzes the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water?
Which of the following enzymes catalyzes the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water?
What type of reaction is primarily catalyzed by decarboxylases?
What type of reaction is primarily catalyzed by decarboxylases?
Which enzyme is involved in the hydrolysis of amide linkages in proteins?
Which enzyme is involved in the hydrolysis of amide linkages in proteins?
Which enzyme catalyzes the removal of COO from pyruvate?
Which enzyme catalyzes the removal of COO from pyruvate?
What type of reaction do oxidoreductases primarily facilitate?
What type of reaction do oxidoreductases primarily facilitate?
Which of the following enzymes is classified as a transferase?
Which of the following enzymes is classified as a transferase?
Which action describes the process of oxidation?
Which action describes the process of oxidation?
What product is formed by the action of lactate dehydrogenase?
What product is formed by the action of lactate dehydrogenase?
Which enzyme catalyzes the racemization of alanine?
Which enzyme catalyzes the racemization of alanine?
Which of the following best describes isomerases?
Which of the following best describes isomerases?
Which enzyme class is responsible for the formation of bonds using ATP?
Which enzyme class is responsible for the formation of bonds using ATP?
What is the primary function of hydrolases?
What is the primary function of hydrolases?
What is a common characteristic of decarboxylases?
What is a common characteristic of decarboxylases?
What type of reaction do lyases catalyze?
What type of reaction do lyases catalyze?
Which enzyme is responsible for the removal of CO2 from a substrate?
Which enzyme is responsible for the removal of CO2 from a substrate?
What is the action of hydratases?
What is the action of hydratases?
Which model describes the interaction where the substrate fits into a rigid active site?
Which model describes the interaction where the substrate fits into a rigid active site?
Which type of inhibitor competes with the substrate for binding at the active site?
Which type of inhibitor competes with the substrate for binding at the active site?
What effect does competitive inhibition have on Vmax?
What effect does competitive inhibition have on Vmax?
What is the primary role of dehydratases?
What is the primary role of dehydratases?
In the induced fit model, what happens to the enzyme upon substrate binding?
In the induced fit model, what happens to the enzyme upon substrate binding?
What type of reaction do transferases catalyze?
What type of reaction do transferases catalyze?
Which of the following enzymes removes ammonia from a substrate?
Which of the following enzymes removes ammonia from a substrate?
What defines a holoenzyme?
What defines a holoenzyme?
What is the primary role of metal ions in enzymes?
What is the primary role of metal ions in enzymes?
Which of the following best describes the function of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
Which of the following best describes the function of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
What do the terms low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) refer to?
What do the terms low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) refer to?
What type of drug are statins primarily classified as?
What type of drug are statins primarily classified as?
What is the primary function of transferases?
What is the primary function of transferases?
Which of the following describes the function of hydrolases?
Which of the following describes the function of hydrolases?
Which enzyme class is responsible for catalyzing the rearrangement of atoms within a molecule?
Which enzyme class is responsible for catalyzing the rearrangement of atoms within a molecule?
What type of reaction do ligases typically catalyze?
What type of reaction do ligases typically catalyze?
Which of these enzyme types is NOT correctly matched with its function?
Which of these enzyme types is NOT correctly matched with its function?
Decarboxylases are primarily responsible for which type of biochemical reaction?
Decarboxylases are primarily responsible for which type of biochemical reaction?
Which of these characteristics is critical to the function of enzymes?
Which of these characteristics is critical to the function of enzymes?
Which enzyme classification includes enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of proteins?
Which enzyme classification includes enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of proteins?
Which option best describes the activity of isomerases?
Which option best describes the activity of isomerases?
What is a common effect of protein denaturation?
What is a common effect of protein denaturation?
What determines the solubility of fatty acids in water?
What determines the solubility of fatty acids in water?
What effect does the presence of double bonds have on the melting point of fatty acids?
What effect does the presence of double bonds have on the melting point of fatty acids?
How does the solubility of fatty acids generally change with increased carbon chain length?
How does the solubility of fatty acids generally change with increased carbon chain length?
Which type of fatty acid is more soluble in water?
Which type of fatty acid is more soluble in water?
Which statement about even-numbered fatty acids is correct?
Which statement about even-numbered fatty acids is correct?
What is the characteristic of the negatively charged carboxylate group in fatty acids?
What is the characteristic of the negatively charged carboxylate group in fatty acids?
Which factor does NOT influence the melting temperature of fatty acids?
Which factor does NOT influence the melting temperature of fatty acids?
What type of fatty acids contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups?
What type of fatty acids contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups?
Which property decreases with longer hydrocarbon chains in fatty acids?
Which property decreases with longer hydrocarbon chains in fatty acids?
Which fatty acids are considered sparingly soluble in water?
Which fatty acids are considered sparingly soluble in water?
What effect does the presence of double bonds have on fatty acid solubility?
What effect does the presence of double bonds have on fatty acid solubility?
Which type of fatty acids is typically solid at room temperature?
Which type of fatty acids is typically solid at room temperature?
What characteristic is associated with saturated fatty acids?
What characteristic is associated with saturated fatty acids?
What is the relationship between hydrocarbon chain length and water solubility in fatty acids?
What is the relationship between hydrocarbon chain length and water solubility in fatty acids?
Which fatty acid characteristic tends to decrease as double bond numbers increase?
Which fatty acid characteristic tends to decrease as double bond numbers increase?
What type of fatty acids contribute to low density lipoprotein levels in the body?
What type of fatty acids contribute to low density lipoprotein levels in the body?
What is the process called when double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids react with hydrogen gas?
What is the process called when double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids react with hydrogen gas?
What roles do antioxidants like vitamin C and vitamin E serve in the context of fatty acids?
What roles do antioxidants like vitamin C and vitamin E serve in the context of fatty acids?
What is the role of a cofactor in enzymatic reactions?
What is the role of a cofactor in enzymatic reactions?
What is a common characteristic of enzymes regarding their specificity?
What is a common characteristic of enzymes regarding their specificity?
What is a primary function of glycolipids in the cell membrane?
What is a primary function of glycolipids in the cell membrane?
Which of the following statements about phospholipids is correct?
Which of the following statements about phospholipids is correct?
What is the parent structure of phospholipids?
What is the parent structure of phospholipids?
Which compound is formed when sphingosine is combined with a fatty acid?
Which compound is formed when sphingosine is combined with a fatty acid?
What characterizes the structural role of phospholipids in biological membranes?
What characterizes the structural role of phospholipids in biological membranes?
Which of the following is a component of sphingomyelin?
Which of the following is a component of sphingomyelin?
What is a defining feature of lipids that are effective in cell membranes?
What is a defining feature of lipids that are effective in cell membranes?
Which type of lipid is primarily used in the nervous system as part of the myelin sheath?
Which type of lipid is primarily used in the nervous system as part of the myelin sheath?
What constitutes a ceramide?
What constitutes a ceramide?
What is a glycolipid primarily composed of?
What is a glycolipid primarily composed of?
What type of linkage connects NANA to the oligosaccharide?
What type of linkage connects NANA to the oligosaccharide?
Which of the following is NOT a component of cerebroside?
Which of the following is NOT a component of cerebroside?
Which of the following is true about sphingomyelin?
Which of the following is true about sphingomyelin?
What is the primary role of bile acids derived from cholesterol?
What is the primary role of bile acids derived from cholesterol?
Which of the following correctly defines ganglioside?
Which of the following correctly defines ganglioside?
What is the characteristic structure of cholesterol?
What is the characteristic structure of cholesterol?
Which component constitutes 25% of all lipids in humans?
Which component constitutes 25% of all lipids in humans?
What happens to the double bond at ring B in the formation of bile acids?
What happens to the double bond at ring B in the formation of bile acids?
Which of the following best describes the hydrocarbon portion of a phospholipid?
Which of the following best describes the hydrocarbon portion of a phospholipid?
What is the function of cholesterol in the context of cell membranes?
What is the function of cholesterol in the context of cell membranes?
Which bile salt has glycine as its alipathic group at C17?
Which bile salt has glycine as its alipathic group at C17?
What is a characteristic of oils compared to fats?
What is a characteristic of oils compared to fats?
What type of reaction is hydrolysis of triacylglycerols considered?
What type of reaction is hydrolysis of triacylglycerols considered?
Which type of fats is known for being raised during hydrogenation?
Which type of fats is known for being raised during hydrogenation?
Which of the following describes waxes?
Which of the following describes waxes?
What defines saturated fats compared to oils?
What defines saturated fats compared to oils?
Which omega fatty acids are considered important 'good fats'?
Which omega fatty acids are considered important 'good fats'?
Which amino acid serves as the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system?
Which amino acid serves as the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system?
What is a common property of waxes related to their physical state at room temperature?
What is a common property of waxes related to their physical state at room temperature?
What is the linear sequence of amino acids in a protein known as?
What is the linear sequence of amino acids in a protein known as?
Which amino acid is known to be an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord?
Which amino acid is known to be an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord?
What is one of the primary uses of waxes due to their low thermal conductivity?
What is one of the primary uses of waxes due to their low thermal conductivity?
Which neurotransmitter is derived from tryptophan and is involved in mood regulation?
Which neurotransmitter is derived from tryptophan and is involved in mood regulation?
Which of the following is an example of a wax produced by a natural secretion?
Which of the following is an example of a wax produced by a natural secretion?
What is the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions?
What is the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions?
Which of the following neurotransmitters is primarily involved in the fight-or-flight response?
Which of the following neurotransmitters is primarily involved in the fight-or-flight response?
What happens to enzymes during the chemical reaction they catalyze?
What happens to enzymes during the chemical reaction they catalyze?
Which of the following compounds may be produced from the oxidation of triacylglycerols?
Which of the following compounds may be produced from the oxidation of triacylglycerols?
What is a characteristic feature of waxes concerning their chemical stability?
What is a characteristic feature of waxes concerning their chemical stability?
What is the effect of double bonds in fatty acids on their melting point?
What is the effect of double bonds in fatty acids on their melting point?
What type of reaction do waxes undergo during saponification?
What type of reaction do waxes undergo during saponification?
What type of bond does an uncompetitive inhibitor primarily form with the enzyme?
What type of bond does an uncompetitive inhibitor primarily form with the enzyme?
Which class of inhibitors binds to the enzyme-substrate complex to prevent the reaction?
Which class of inhibitors binds to the enzyme-substrate complex to prevent the reaction?
What is a characteristic effect of suicide inhibitors on enzymes?
What is a characteristic effect of suicide inhibitors on enzymes?
Which of the following statements is true regarding heavy metal ions as inhibitors?
Which of the following statements is true regarding heavy metal ions as inhibitors?
What is the primary action of organophosphate insecticides on enzymes?
What is the primary action of organophosphate insecticides on enzymes?
In an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, what is the role of a substrate?
In an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, what is the role of a substrate?
What is the effect of irreversible inhibitors on enzymes?
What is the effect of irreversible inhibitors on enzymes?
Which statement describes how uncompetitive inhibitors affect enzyme kinetics?
Which statement describes how uncompetitive inhibitors affect enzyme kinetics?
What role does a flexible pocket in enzymes play in substrate binding?
What role does a flexible pocket in enzymes play in substrate binding?
What defines a second-order reaction in enzymatic kinetics?
What defines a second-order reaction in enzymatic kinetics?
Which amino acid is the only one that is not chiral?
Which amino acid is the only one that is not chiral?
What characteristic do chiral α-carbon atoms possess?
What characteristic do chiral α-carbon atoms possess?
Which of the following amino acids is purely ketogenic?
Which of the following amino acids is purely ketogenic?
What type of amino acid side chain is characterized by being hydrophobic?
What type of amino acid side chain is characterized by being hydrophobic?
Which of the following classifications describes amino acids that can give both glucose and ketone bodies?
Which of the following classifications describes amino acids that can give both glucose and ketone bodies?
Which amino acid can be classified as having a polar neutral side chain?
Which amino acid can be classified as having a polar neutral side chain?
What is true about stereoisomers in relation to amino acids?
What is true about stereoisomers in relation to amino acids?
Which statement is accurate concerning the classification of amino acids?
Which statement is accurate concerning the classification of amino acids?
Which amino acid has a side chain that is classified as polar acidic?
Which amino acid has a side chain that is classified as polar acidic?
What indicates that an amino acid has a polar basic side chain?
What indicates that an amino acid has a polar basic side chain?
What is the most abundant type of RNA involved in protein synthesis?
What is the most abundant type of RNA involved in protein synthesis?
What role does transfer RNA (tRNA) play in protein synthesis?
What role does transfer RNA (tRNA) play in protein synthesis?
In the central dogma of molecular biology, which process involves the reading and carrying of genetic messages?
In the central dogma of molecular biology, which process involves the reading and carrying of genetic messages?
Which type of RNA associates with ribosomal proteins to form the complete functional ribosome?
Which type of RNA associates with ribosomal proteins to form the complete functional ribosome?
What is the primary outcome of the translation process in the central dogma?
What is the primary outcome of the translation process in the central dogma?
Which of the following RNA types is responsible for transporting amino acids during protein synthesis?
Which of the following RNA types is responsible for transporting amino acids during protein synthesis?
How is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) described in terms of abundance among RNA types?
How is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) described in terms of abundance among RNA types?
What does an uncompetitive inhibitor do in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction?
What does an uncompetitive inhibitor do in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction?
Suicide inhibitors permanently alter the enzyme by forming what type of bond?
Suicide inhibitors permanently alter the enzyme by forming what type of bond?
Which of the following statements accurately describes heavy metal ions as enzyme inhibitors?
Which of the following statements accurately describes heavy metal ions as enzyme inhibitors?
What defines the action of organophosphate insecticides on enzymes?
What defines the action of organophosphate insecticides on enzymes?
How does the binding of a competitive inhibitor affect enzyme activity?
How does the binding of a competitive inhibitor affect enzyme activity?
What are cerebrosides composed of?
What are cerebrosides composed of?
What type of linkage is formed when NANA is attached to an oligosaccharide?
What type of linkage is formed when NANA is attached to an oligosaccharide?
What is the primary function of sphingomyelin in the human body?
What is the primary function of sphingomyelin in the human body?
Which statement correctly describes cholesterol?
Which statement correctly describes cholesterol?
What is the role of bile acids derived from cholesterol?
What is the role of bile acids derived from cholesterol?
What characteristic is common to the polar sites of phospholipids?
What characteristic is common to the polar sites of phospholipids?
How are oligosaccharides linked to ceramide in gangliosides?
How are oligosaccharides linked to ceramide in gangliosides?
Which enzyme is classified as a mutase?
Which enzyme is classified as a mutase?
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of new bonds between substrates with the participation of ATP?
Which enzyme catalyzes the formation of new bonds between substrates with the participation of ATP?
What is the primary composition of cerebrosides when the sugar is glucose?
What is the primary composition of cerebrosides when the sugar is glucose?
What happens to bile acids when the double bond at ring B is lost?
What happens to bile acids when the double bond at ring B is lost?
What reaction do carboxylases typically catalyze?
What reaction do carboxylases typically catalyze?
Which enzyme is responsible for the hydrolysis of sugar phosphate ester bonds in nucleic acids?
Which enzyme is responsible for the hydrolysis of sugar phosphate ester bonds in nucleic acids?
Which type of enzymes catalyze the cleavage of high-energy phosphate bonds?
Which type of enzymes catalyze the cleavage of high-energy phosphate bonds?
What do transaminases do in biochemical processes?
What do transaminases do in biochemical processes?
Which enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the condensation of pyruvate and CO2?
Which enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the condensation of pyruvate and CO2?
Which classification of enzymes includes those that catalyze reactions involving structural rearrangements?
Which classification of enzymes includes those that catalyze reactions involving structural rearrangements?
What type of reaction does a dehydratase catalyze?
What type of reaction does a dehydratase catalyze?
In the lock and key model, how does the substrate interact with the enzyme?
In the lock and key model, how does the substrate interact with the enzyme?
What does a competitive inhibitor do in enzyme kinetics?
What does a competitive inhibitor do in enzyme kinetics?
What is the characteristic of non-competitive inhibition?
What is the characteristic of non-competitive inhibition?
Which type of bonds can lyases cleave?
Which type of bonds can lyases cleave?
What happens to an enzyme's structure during the induced fit model?
What happens to an enzyme's structure during the induced fit model?
Which of the following is an example of a non-competitive inhibitor?
Which of the following is an example of a non-competitive inhibitor?
What is the role of hydratases in biochemical reactions?
What is the role of hydratases in biochemical reactions?
How does the differential effect of competitive inhibition on Km manifest?
How does the differential effect of competitive inhibition on Km manifest?
Which feature is not associated with the lock and key model?
Which feature is not associated with the lock and key model?
What is the primary source of fats?
What is the primary source of fats?
Which type of fat is considered a 'good fat'?
Which type of fat is considered a 'good fat'?
What is the structure of taurocholate defined by?
What is the structure of taurocholate defined by?
What is a common property of waxes?
What is a common property of waxes?
Which reaction describes the breakdown of triacylglycerols?
Which reaction describes the breakdown of triacylglycerols?
What type of fatty acids are omega-3 and omega-6 classified as?
What type of fatty acids are omega-3 and omega-6 classified as?
Which type of fat is predominantly found in oils?
Which type of fat is predominantly found in oils?
Which enzyme class is responsible for forming a new bond between two substrates using ATP?
Which enzyme class is responsible for forming a new bond between two substrates using ATP?
Which enzyme reaction involves the transfer of an amino group between substrates?
Which enzyme reaction involves the transfer of an amino group between substrates?
Which of the following enzymes catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to CO2?
Which of the following enzymes catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to CO2?
Pyruvate carboxylase encompasses which type of enzymatic activity?
Pyruvate carboxylase encompasses which type of enzymatic activity?
What type of reaction do hydrolases typically facilitate?
What type of reaction do hydrolases typically facilitate?
What defines the action of kinases in enzymatic reactions?
What defines the action of kinases in enzymatic reactions?
What is the primary role of proteases in biochemical reactions?
What is the primary role of proteases in biochemical reactions?
What is the primary consequence of the formation of toxic aggregates in the brain regarding Alzheimer's disease?
What is the primary consequence of the formation of toxic aggregates in the brain regarding Alzheimer's disease?
What type of protein aggregate is associated with Parkinson's disease?
What type of protein aggregate is associated with Parkinson's disease?
What is the process called when a protein loses its natural shape and functionality?
What is the process called when a protein loses its natural shape and functionality?
Which of the following is NOT a factor that affects protein denaturation?
Which of the following is NOT a factor that affects protein denaturation?
What type of bond links amino acids together in proteins?
What type of bond links amino acids together in proteins?
Which amino acid is unique in not being chiral?
Which amino acid is unique in not being chiral?
How many chiral carbons does threonine possess?
How many chiral carbons does threonine possess?
Which of the following correctly describes nonpolar amino acids?
Which of the following correctly describes nonpolar amino acids?
Which group of amino acids is classified as purely ketogenic?
Which group of amino acids is classified as purely ketogenic?
How are stereoisomers defined?
How are stereoisomers defined?
What characterizes a polar acidic amino acid?
What characterizes a polar acidic amino acid?
What type of interaction is associated with nonpolar amino acids?
What type of interaction is associated with nonpolar amino acids?
Which amino acids can yield both ketone bodies and glucose?
Which amino acids can yield both ketone bodies and glucose?
Which property best describes the side chains of polar neutral amino acids?
Which property best describes the side chains of polar neutral amino acids?
What aspect of amino acids influences their classification based on metablolic products?
What aspect of amino acids influences their classification based on metablolic products?
What is primarily responsible for stabilizing the alpha helix structure in proteins?
What is primarily responsible for stabilizing the alpha helix structure in proteins?
Which type of protein is characterized by a compact, spherical shape and is often water-soluble?
Which type of protein is characterized by a compact, spherical shape and is often water-soluble?
What type of interaction holds the tertiary structure of a protein together?
What type of interaction holds the tertiary structure of a protein together?
Which structure represents multiple polypeptide chains coming together?
Which structure represents multiple polypeptide chains coming together?
What happens to misfolded proteins within a cell?
What happens to misfolded proteins within a cell?
How many amino acids typically define a peptide?
How many amino acids typically define a peptide?
Which of the following examples is a fibrous protein?
Which of the following examples is a fibrous protein?
What is the role of chaperones in protein folding?
What is the role of chaperones in protein folding?
Which pathological condition is associated with protein misfolding?
Which pathological condition is associated with protein misfolding?
What type of bonds are involved in quaternary structures of proteins?
What type of bonds are involved in quaternary structures of proteins?
What is the primary role of messenger RNA (mRNA)?
What is the primary role of messenger RNA (mRNA)?
Which sequence of nucleotides is referred to as a codon?
Which sequence of nucleotides is referred to as a codon?
What is a key function of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) during translation?
What is a key function of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) during translation?
What is the process of DNA replication primarily responsible for?
What is the process of DNA replication primarily responsible for?
What role do stop codons play in protein synthesis?
What role do stop codons play in protein synthesis?
During which phase does DNA replication take place?
During which phase does DNA replication take place?
What is true regarding the size and sequence variability of mRNA?
What is true regarding the size and sequence variability of mRNA?
What is the primary function of eicosanoids?
What is the primary function of eicosanoids?
What is the composition of a triglyceride?
What is the composition of a triglyceride?
What is the energy yield from triglycerides compared to carbohydrates and proteins?
What is the energy yield from triglycerides compared to carbohydrates and proteins?
How do simple triacylglycerols differ from mixed triacylglycerols?
How do simple triacylglycerols differ from mixed triacylglycerols?
What are eicosanoids derived from?
What are eicosanoids derived from?
What is the role of DHA in development?
What is the role of DHA in development?
What is a characteristic of sphingolipids?
What is a characteristic of sphingolipids?
What is a function of simple glycerides?
What is a function of simple glycerides?
What happens to eicosanoids after they exert their effects?
What happens to eicosanoids after they exert their effects?
What distinguishes lyases from other enzymes?
What distinguishes lyases from other enzymes?
In the lock and key model, what aspect of enzyme-substrate interaction is considered?
In the lock and key model, what aspect of enzyme-substrate interaction is considered?
Which statement best describes non-competitive inhibition?
Which statement best describes non-competitive inhibition?
How does substrate concentration affect the maximum velocity (Vmax) in competitive inhibition?
How does substrate concentration affect the maximum velocity (Vmax) in competitive inhibition?
What is the primary difference in the induced fit model compared to the lock and key model?
What is the primary difference in the induced fit model compared to the lock and key model?
What are coenzymes primarily derived from?
What are coenzymes primarily derived from?
What is the role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
What is the role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
What is produced when unsaturated fatty acids undergo hydrogenation?
What is produced when unsaturated fatty acids undergo hydrogenation?
Which of the following best describes the role of antioxidants like vitamin C and E in food?
Which of the following best describes the role of antioxidants like vitamin C and E in food?
What type of cholesterol do low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) primarily carry?
What type of cholesterol do low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) primarily carry?
What is the primary function of enzymes in a chemical reaction?
What is the primary function of enzymes in a chemical reaction?
Which statement about statins is true?
Which statement about statins is true?
What are cofactors in the context of enzyme activity?
What are cofactors in the context of enzyme activity?
What is a key characteristic of a holoenzyme?
What is a key characteristic of a holoenzyme?
What happens to the activation energy in the presence of a catalyst?
What happens to the activation energy in the presence of a catalyst?
Which statement about apoenzyme is accurate?
Which statement about apoenzyme is accurate?
Why might fats and oils develop objectionable odors over time?
Why might fats and oils develop objectionable odors over time?
Which of the following is NOT a type of cofactor?
Which of the following is NOT a type of cofactor?
What is meant by the term 'apoenzyme'?
What is meant by the term 'apoenzyme'?
What differentiates saturated fatty acids from unsaturated ones?
What differentiates saturated fatty acids from unsaturated ones?
How do high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) function?
How do high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) function?
What is the consequence of hydrogenating unsaturated fatty acids?
What is the consequence of hydrogenating unsaturated fatty acids?
Which of the following statements is false regarding enzyme specificity?
Which of the following statements is false regarding enzyme specificity?
What does hydrogenation primarily achieve in unsaturated fatty acids?
What does hydrogenation primarily achieve in unsaturated fatty acids?
Which form of DNA is considered the most stable and is predominant in physiological conditions?
Which form of DNA is considered the most stable and is predominant in physiological conditions?
What type of mutation is characterized by a change in a single base pair that does not affect the activity of the resulting protein?
What type of mutation is characterized by a change in a single base pair that does not affect the activity of the resulting protein?
Which form of DNA has a left-handed helical structure and a zigzag appearance?
Which form of DNA has a left-handed helical structure and a zigzag appearance?
What is the result of a missense mutation in DNA?
What is the result of a missense mutation in DNA?
In which condition is the A form of DNA favored?
In which condition is the A form of DNA favored?
Which type of mutation introduces a stop codon into the protein sequence?
Which type of mutation introduces a stop codon into the protein sequence?
What is a common misconception about mutations?
What is a common misconception about mutations?
Which amino acid is classified as the only non-chiral amino acid?
Which amino acid is classified as the only non-chiral amino acid?
What characterizes amino acids with nonpolar side chains?
What characterizes amino acids with nonpolar side chains?
Which amino acids are solely classified as ketogenic?
Which amino acids are solely classified as ketogenic?
Which type of amino acids has side chains that are hydrophilic?
Which type of amino acids has side chains that are hydrophilic?
How many chiral carbons are found in threonine and isoleucine respectively?
How many chiral carbons are found in threonine and isoleucine respectively?
What is the main structural role of phospholipids in biological membranes?
What is the main structural role of phospholipids in biological membranes?
Which of the following components primarily constitutes cerebrosides?
Which of the following components primarily constitutes cerebrosides?
What is the basic structure found in all phosphoglycerides?
What is the basic structure found in all phosphoglycerides?
What is the purpose of antioxidants like vitamin C and vitamin E in food preservation?
What is the purpose of antioxidants like vitamin C and vitamin E in food preservation?
Which characteristic is essential for a lipid to function properly in a membrane?
Which characteristic is essential for a lipid to function properly in a membrane?
What is sphingomyelin composed of?
What is sphingomyelin composed of?
What type of bond is formed between carbon atoms during the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids?
What type of bond is formed between carbon atoms during the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids?
What is an apoenzyme?
What is an apoenzyme?
In what major tissue are ceramide derivatives primarily utilized?
In what major tissue are ceramide derivatives primarily utilized?
Which component of phospholipids is often involved in cellular recognition?
Which component of phospholipids is often involved in cellular recognition?
How do antioxidants prevent unwanted oxidation in fats and oils?
How do antioxidants prevent unwanted oxidation in fats and oils?
Which statement accurately describes cofactors in enzyme activity?
Which statement accurately describes cofactors in enzyme activity?
What key feature differentiates phospholipids from other lipid classes?
What key feature differentiates phospholipids from other lipid classes?
How many percent of total lipids in man are represented by glycolipids?
How many percent of total lipids in man are represented by glycolipids?
What is the primary chemical reaction involved in the hydrogenation of triacylglycerols?
What is the primary chemical reaction involved in the hydrogenation of triacylglycerols?
What type of fatty acids are formed from the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids?
What type of fatty acids are formed from the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids?
What happens to double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids during hydrogenation?
What happens to double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids during hydrogenation?
Which type of enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a functional group within a single molecule?
Which type of enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a functional group within a single molecule?
What is the primary action of lipases in biochemical reactions?
What is the primary action of lipases in biochemical reactions?
Which enzyme is known for catalyzing the cleavage of a high-energy phosphate bond in the presence of water?
Which enzyme is known for catalyzing the cleavage of a high-energy phosphate bond in the presence of water?
What is the main feature of ligases in biochemical reactions?
What is the main feature of ligases in biochemical reactions?
Which enzyme transfers an amino group from alanine to another substrate?
Which enzyme transfers an amino group from alanine to another substrate?
Which of the following enzymes directly utilizes ATP to form new bonds?
Which of the following enzymes directly utilizes ATP to form new bonds?
What type of reaction do carboxylases primarily catalyze?
What type of reaction do carboxylases primarily catalyze?
Which enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates?
Which enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates?
Which class of enzymes is specifically involved in the hydrolysis of amide linkages in proteins?
Which class of enzymes is specifically involved in the hydrolysis of amide linkages in proteins?
What is a common function of kinases in biological systems?
What is a common function of kinases in biological systems?
Which form of DNA is the most stable and predominantly found in physiological conditions?
Which form of DNA is the most stable and predominantly found in physiological conditions?
What type of mutation results in no change in the activity of the protein?
What type of mutation results in no change in the activity of the protein?
Which type of mutation results in the substitution of one amino acid for another?
Which type of mutation results in the substitution of one amino acid for another?
What feature does the Z form of DNA exhibit?
What feature does the Z form of DNA exhibit?
What does the term 'mutation' generally imply?
What does the term 'mutation' generally imply?
Which of these mutations leads to the introduction of a premature stop codon?
Which of these mutations leads to the introduction of a premature stop codon?
Which of the following conditions favors the formation of A form DNA?
Which of the following conditions favors the formation of A form DNA?
What is the primary function of HMG-CoA reductase?
What is the primary function of HMG-CoA reductase?
Which statement describes the action of oxidoreductases?
Which statement describes the action of oxidoreductases?
What type of reaction is catalyzed by isomerases?
What type of reaction is catalyzed by isomerases?
What type of sugar is associated with glucocerebroside?
What type of sugar is associated with glucocerebroside?
What is the main action of dehydrogenases?
What is the main action of dehydrogenases?
Which linkage connects the oligosaccharide to ceramide in gangliosides?
Which linkage connects the oligosaccharide to ceramide in gangliosides?
Which enzyme is known to facilitate the transfer of amino groups specifically?
Which enzyme is known to facilitate the transfer of amino groups specifically?
Which component is NOT part of the structure of sphingomyelin?
Which component is NOT part of the structure of sphingomyelin?
Which lipid is primarily found in nerve tissue as part of the myelin sheath?
Which lipid is primarily found in nerve tissue as part of the myelin sheath?
What type of acid is linked to the oligosaccharide in gangliosides?
What type of acid is linked to the oligosaccharide in gangliosides?
What is a characteristic feature of cholesterol's molecular structure?
What is a characteristic feature of cholesterol's molecular structure?
Which of the following statements about sulfatides is true?
Which of the following statements about sulfatides is true?
What do antioxidants do in relation to fats and oils?
What do antioxidants do in relation to fats and oils?
What is produced during the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids?
What is produced during the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids?
What role do cofactors play in enzyme function?
What role do cofactors play in enzyme function?
Why is it important to avoid alteration of reaction equilibrium?
Why is it important to avoid alteration of reaction equilibrium?
What characterizes enzymes in terms of their specificity?
What characterizes enzymes in terms of their specificity?
What type of reaction can convert unsaturated fatty acids into saturated fatty acids?
What type of reaction can convert unsaturated fatty acids into saturated fatty acids?
What is an effect of rancidity in fats and oils?
What is an effect of rancidity in fats and oils?
How are hydrogen gas and double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids related?
How are hydrogen gas and double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids related?
What is a holoenzyme composed of?
What is a holoenzyme composed of?
What role do metal ions play in metalloenzymes?
What role do metal ions play in metalloenzymes?
What is a characteristic of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
What is a characteristic of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
What is the primary function of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)?
What is the primary function of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)?
What is the main function of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)?
What is the main function of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)?
What type of drug are statins classified as?
What type of drug are statins classified as?
What is the substrate of an enzyme?
What is the substrate of an enzyme?
How do catalysts affect the activation energy of a reaction?
How do catalysts affect the activation energy of a reaction?
What type of molecules can act as prosthetic groups?
What type of molecules can act as prosthetic groups?
What characteristic makes fatty acids amphipathic?
What characteristic makes fatty acids amphipathic?
How does the solubility of fatty acids generally change with increased chain length?
How does the solubility of fatty acids generally change with increased chain length?
Which type of fatty acid is classified as solid at room temperature?
Which type of fatty acid is classified as solid at room temperature?
What is the effect of double bonds on the solubility of fatty acids?
What is the effect of double bonds on the solubility of fatty acids?
What group is present in fatty acids that contributes to their polar nature?
What group is present in fatty acids that contributes to their polar nature?
What occurs as the number of double bonds in fatty acids increases?
What occurs as the number of double bonds in fatty acids increases?
What type of cholesterol is associated with saturated fatty acids?
What type of cholesterol is associated with saturated fatty acids?
What property of waxes allows them to melt and flow easily when heated?
What property of waxes allows them to melt and flow easily when heated?
Which of the following types of wax is a secretion from the sebaceous glands of the skin?
Which of the following types of wax is a secretion from the sebaceous glands of the skin?
What happens to double bonds in triacylglycerols during oxidation?
What happens to double bonds in triacylglycerols during oxidation?
Which of the following properties makes waxes suitable as insulators?
Which of the following properties makes waxes suitable as insulators?
Which of the following waxes is often used for baby skin treatments?
Which of the following waxes is often used for baby skin treatments?
What is formed when ceramide is combined with glucose?
What is formed when ceramide is combined with glucose?
What type of linkage is primarily found between ceramide and oligosaccharides in gangliosides?
What type of linkage is primarily found between ceramide and oligosaccharides in gangliosides?
Which component is added to ceramide and oligosaccharides to form gangliosides?
Which component is added to ceramide and oligosaccharides to form gangliosides?
What is the structural characteristic of cholesterol?
What is the structural characteristic of cholesterol?
Which of the following substances acts as an emulsifier for fatty acids?
Which of the following substances acts as an emulsifier for fatty acids?
What type of sugar is associated with the formation of lactocerebroside?
What type of sugar is associated with the formation of lactocerebroside?
Which characteristic best describes the hydrocarbon part of a phospholipid?
Which characteristic best describes the hydrocarbon part of a phospholipid?
Which of the following statements is true about the linkage of NANA to the oligosaccharide?
Which of the following statements is true about the linkage of NANA to the oligosaccharide?
What percentage of all lipids in humans are sphingolipids?
What percentage of all lipids in humans are sphingolipids?
What is the main function of eicosanoids in the body?
What is the main function of eicosanoids in the body?
What is the energy yield of triacylglycerol compared to carbohydrates and proteins?
What is the energy yield of triacylglycerol compared to carbohydrates and proteins?
How are simple glycerides formed?
How are simple glycerides formed?
What differentiates a mixed triacylglycerol from a simple triacylglycerol?
What differentiates a mixed triacylglycerol from a simple triacylglycerol?
Which statement about sphingolipids is accurate?
Which statement about sphingolipids is accurate?
What is a common characteristic of triacylglycerols?
What is a common characteristic of triacylglycerols?
What physiological role does DHA play in the body?
What physiological role does DHA play in the body?
What describes the composition of triacylglycerols?
What describes the composition of triacylglycerols?
What does the term 'esterification' refer to in the context of lipids?
What does the term 'esterification' refer to in the context of lipids?
Which component is necessary to classify a lipid as a phospholipid?
Which component is necessary to classify a lipid as a phospholipid?
Glycolipids are mainly characterized by the presence of which components?
Glycolipids are mainly characterized by the presence of which components?
What structure forms the basis for all phosphoglycerides?
What structure forms the basis for all phosphoglycerides?
What component do ceramides consist of?
What component do ceramides consist of?
What is the function of sphingomyelin in the body?
What is the function of sphingomyelin in the body?
What is a key characteristic of the structure of phospholipids?
What is a key characteristic of the structure of phospholipids?
Which of the following best describes the composition of a typical glycolipid?
Which of the following best describes the composition of a typical glycolipid?
In terms of cellular functions, what role do lipids in the plasma membrane primarily serve?
In terms of cellular functions, what role do lipids in the plasma membrane primarily serve?
Which lipid is known as the basic structural element found in all phosphoglycerides?
Which lipid is known as the basic structural element found in all phosphoglycerides?
What effect does the degree of saturation have on the melting temperature of fatty acids?
What effect does the degree of saturation have on the melting temperature of fatty acids?
Which fatty acid is an example of a polyunsaturated fatty acid?
Which fatty acid is an example of a polyunsaturated fatty acid?
What chain length class is lauric acid categorized into?
What chain length class is lauric acid categorized into?
How does increasing the chain length of a fatty acid generally affect its melting temperature?
How does increasing the chain length of a fatty acid generally affect its melting temperature?
What characteristic of unsaturated fatty acids affects their melting point compared to saturated fatty acids?
What characteristic of unsaturated fatty acids affects their melting point compared to saturated fatty acids?
What type of fatty acid is identified as having one double bond?
What type of fatty acid is identified as having one double bond?
Which of the following statements about long chain fatty acids is true?
Which of the following statements about long chain fatty acids is true?
What is the primary feature of the alpha helix structure in proteins?
What is the primary feature of the alpha helix structure in proteins?
Which type of protein is typically characterized by a long, fibrous shape and is often insoluble in water?
Which type of protein is typically characterized by a long, fibrous shape and is often insoluble in water?
What role do chaperones play in the context of protein structure?
What role do chaperones play in the context of protein structure?
How are proteins distinguished from peptides based on amino acid count?
How are proteins distinguished from peptides based on amino acid count?
Which of the following accurately describes the quaternary structure of proteins?
Which of the following accurately describes the quaternary structure of proteins?
Which of the following describes the structure of cerebroside?
Which of the following describes the structure of cerebroside?
What type of sugar is linked to create a galactocerebroside?
What type of sugar is linked to create a galactocerebroside?
Which type of linkage connects NANA to the oligosaccharide in gangliosides?
Which type of linkage connects NANA to the oligosaccharide in gangliosides?
Which component is found in 25% of all lipids in humans?
Which component is found in 25% of all lipids in humans?
What is the primary function of bile acids derived from cholesterol?
What is the primary function of bile acids derived from cholesterol?
Which of the following correctly identifies the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts of a phospholipid?
Which of the following correctly identifies the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts of a phospholipid?
What is the molecular structure feature of cholesterol?
What is the molecular structure feature of cholesterol?
What is the primary role of sphingomyelin in biological systems?
What is the primary role of sphingomyelin in biological systems?
What specific double bond characteristic is mentioned in the context of cholesterol?
What specific double bond characteristic is mentioned in the context of cholesterol?
Which amino acids are classified as glucogenic?
Which amino acids are classified as glucogenic?
What is a primary use of waxes due to their low thermal conductivity?
What is a primary use of waxes due to their low thermal conductivity?
What is the role of glutamate in the central nervous system?
What is the role of glutamate in the central nervous system?
Which of the following is an example of a wax produced by bees?
Which of the following is an example of a wax produced by bees?
Which neurotransmitter is derived from tyrosine and involved in reward and movement?
Which neurotransmitter is derived from tyrosine and involved in reward and movement?
What occurs during the oxidation of double bonds in triacylglycerols?
What occurs during the oxidation of double bonds in triacylglycerols?
Which level of protein structure refers to the linear sequence of amino acids?
Which level of protein structure refers to the linear sequence of amino acids?
What does the secondary structure of a protein refer to?
What does the secondary structure of a protein refer to?
What is the product of hydrolysis of waxes in basic solutions?
What is the product of hydrolysis of waxes in basic solutions?
What characteristic of waxes contributes to their use in reducing friction?
What characteristic of waxes contributes to their use in reducing friction?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily inhibitory and especially active in the spinal cord?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily inhibitory and especially active in the spinal cord?
Which of the following waxes is also used as a treatment for sore nipples in breastfeeding mothers?
Which of the following waxes is also used as a treatment for sore nipples in breastfeeding mothers?
Epinephrine is derived from which neurotransmitter?
Epinephrine is derived from which neurotransmitter?
Which statement accurately describes enzymes?
Which statement accurately describes enzymes?
Which neurotransmitter is known to be involved in mood and appetite regulation?
Which neurotransmitter is known to be involved in mood and appetite regulation?
What characterizes the polar basic side chains of certain amino acids?
What characterizes the polar basic side chains of certain amino acids?
What kind of substances do enzymes influence primarily?
What kind of substances do enzymes influence primarily?
What class of amino acids includes those that give rise to glucose?
What class of amino acids includes those that give rise to glucose?
What is a common feature of waxes regarding their melting points?
What is a common feature of waxes regarding their melting points?
Which function do enzymes not perform in biochemical reactions?
Which function do enzymes not perform in biochemical reactions?
What is the role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in protein synthesis?
What is the role of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in protein synthesis?
Which type of RNA is responsible for delivering amino acids to the ribosome?
Which type of RNA is responsible for delivering amino acids to the ribosome?
What process follows transcription in protein synthesis?
What process follows transcription in protein synthesis?
What is the primary purpose of transcription in the central dogma of molecular biology?
What is the primary purpose of transcription in the central dogma of molecular biology?
Which statement correctly describes the relationship between replication, transcription, and translation?
Which statement correctly describes the relationship between replication, transcription, and translation?
Which of the following is NOT a type of RNA involved in protein synthesis?
Which of the following is NOT a type of RNA involved in protein synthesis?
Why is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) considered the most abundant type of RNA?
Why is ribosomal RNA (rRNA) considered the most abundant type of RNA?
What type of complex is formed when an uncompetitive inhibitor binds to an enzyme?
What type of complex is formed when an uncompetitive inhibitor binds to an enzyme?
What is a frameshift mutation primarily caused by?
What is a frameshift mutation primarily caused by?
What is the hallmark of a suicide inhibitor?
What is the hallmark of a suicide inhibitor?
Which type of mutation involves the reversal of a segment within a chromosome?
Which type of mutation involves the reversal of a segment within a chromosome?
Which factor primarily distinguishes competitive inhibitors from uncompetitive inhibitors?
Which factor primarily distinguishes competitive inhibitors from uncompetitive inhibitors?
What role do metal ions play in enzyme functionality?
What role do metal ions play in enzyme functionality?
What is the primary purpose of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
What is the primary purpose of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
Which characteristic defines irreversible inhibitors?
Which characteristic defines irreversible inhibitors?
What characterizes the deletion mutation?
What characterizes the deletion mutation?
What is the first step in the polymerase chain reaction process?
What is the first step in the polymerase chain reaction process?
What results from a frameshift mutation?
What results from a frameshift mutation?
Which type of lipids are primarily responsible for energy storage?
Which type of lipids are primarily responsible for energy storage?
What type of mutation involves moving a segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome?
What type of mutation involves moving a segment from one chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome?
Which stage follows the annealing of primers in PCR?
Which stage follows the annealing of primers in PCR?
What role do prostaglandins play in the body?
What role do prostaglandins play in the body?
Why is aspirin contraindicated in cases of dengue fever?
Why is aspirin contraindicated in cases of dengue fever?
What type of fatty acids are referred to as HUFA?
What type of fatty acids are referred to as HUFA?
What is the primary effect of thromboxanes?
What is the primary effect of thromboxanes?
What is a characteristic feature of trans fatty acids?
What is a characteristic feature of trans fatty acids?
Which of the following is NOT a precursor of eicosanoids?
Which of the following is NOT a precursor of eicosanoids?
Which leukotriene is known to increase vascular permeability and bronchoconstriction?
Which leukotriene is known to increase vascular permeability and bronchoconstriction?
What is the structural characteristic of prostaglandins?
What is the structural characteristic of prostaglandins?
What is the primary biochemical impact of increased gastric secretion when prostaglandins are inhibited?
What is the primary biochemical impact of increased gastric secretion when prostaglandins are inhibited?
Which specific function do leukotrienes serve in the body?
Which specific function do leukotrienes serve in the body?
What is the definition of a holoenzyme?
What is the definition of a holoenzyme?
Which of the following describes a metalloenzyme?
Which of the following describes a metalloenzyme?
How does a catalyst function in a chemical reaction?
How does a catalyst function in a chemical reaction?
What is the primary role of coenzymes in enzymatic reactions?
What is the primary role of coenzymes in enzymatic reactions?
What is a substrate in the context of enzymatic reactions?
What is a substrate in the context of enzymatic reactions?
What distinguishes low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) from high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)?
What distinguishes low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) from high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)?
Which statement accurately describes statins?
Which statement accurately describes statins?
What is the main component of a prosthetic group in enzymes?
What is the main component of a prosthetic group in enzymes?
Which statement about metal ions in enzymes is accurate?
Which statement about metal ions in enzymes is accurate?
What type of mutation results from the addition or loss of DNA bases that changes a gene’s reading frame?
What type of mutation results from the addition or loss of DNA bases that changes a gene’s reading frame?
Which type of mutation reverses a segment within a chromosome?
Which type of mutation reverses a segment within a chromosome?
What is the first step in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process?
What is the first step in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process?
What type of lipid is primarily used for energy storage?
What type of lipid is primarily used for energy storage?
Which mutation is characterized by the removal of a chromosomal segment?
Which mutation is characterized by the removal of a chromosomal segment?
During PCR, what follows the annealing of primers?
During PCR, what follows the annealing of primers?
Which bile salt contains glycine as its alipathic group?
Which bile salt contains glycine as its alipathic group?
What type of fats are predominantly saturated and solid at room temperature?
What type of fats are predominantly saturated and solid at room temperature?
What is the main type of mutation where nonhomologous chromosomes exchange fragments?
What is the main type of mutation where nonhomologous chromosomes exchange fragments?
Which of the following is a chemical reaction of triacylglycerols?
Which of the following is a chemical reaction of triacylglycerols?
What effect does the presence of double bonds generally have on fatty acids?
What effect does the presence of double bonds generally have on fatty acids?
What is a characteristic property of waxes in biological systems?
What is a characteristic property of waxes in biological systems?
What is the effect of increasing chain length on the melting temperature of unsaturated fatty acids?
What is the effect of increasing chain length on the melting temperature of unsaturated fatty acids?
Which type of fatty acid contains only one double bond in its structure?
Which type of fatty acid contains only one double bond in its structure?
What is the characteristic melting temperature of stearic acid?
What is the characteristic melting temperature of stearic acid?
How does unsaturation in fatty acids affect their intermolecular attraction?
How does unsaturation in fatty acids affect their intermolecular attraction?
What classification does lauric acid fall under in terms of chain length?
What classification does lauric acid fall under in terms of chain length?
What happens to the melting point of fatty acids with increased saturation?
What happens to the melting point of fatty acids with increased saturation?
What primarily influences the melting temperature of fatty acids?
What primarily influences the melting temperature of fatty acids?
Which statement correctly describes the molecular behavior of saturated fatty acids?
Which statement correctly describes the molecular behavior of saturated fatty acids?
What type of fatty acids can animals not synthesize at the methyl end?
What type of fatty acids can animals not synthesize at the methyl end?
Which animals require long-chain 20 and 22 carbon fatty acids in their diet?
Which animals require long-chain 20 and 22 carbon fatty acids in their diet?
What is the primary role of prostaglandins in the body?
What is the primary role of prostaglandins in the body?
Which of the following fatty acids is typically shorter and has lower melting points due to its double bonds?
Which of the following fatty acids is typically shorter and has lower melting points due to its double bonds?
Which of the following statements accurately describes glycolipids?
Which of the following statements accurately describes glycolipids?
What is a characteristic effect of increased carbon chain length in fatty acids?
What is a characteristic effect of increased carbon chain length in fatty acids?
Which type of fatty acid is described as water insoluble?
Which type of fatty acid is described as water insoluble?
What constitutes the parent structure of phospholipids?
What constitutes the parent structure of phospholipids?
What physiological processes are influenced by the saturation of fatty acids?
What physiological processes are influenced by the saturation of fatty acids?
Why do animals require n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in their diets?
Why do animals require n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in their diets?
What characteristic must a lipid have in order to form a cell membrane?
What characteristic must a lipid have in order to form a cell membrane?
What effect do double bonds have on the melting point of fatty acids?
What effect do double bonds have on the melting point of fatty acids?
Which component is often found in sphingophospholipids?
Which component is often found in sphingophospholipids?
What consequences occur when aspirin is taken during fever?
What consequences occur when aspirin is taken during fever?
How do ceramide derivatives primarily function in the body?
How do ceramide derivatives primarily function in the body?
Which component is a crucial feature of a phosphoglyceride?
Which component is a crucial feature of a phosphoglyceride?
What type of lipid is used to anchor blood type carbohydrates into the membranes of red blood cells?
What type of lipid is used to anchor blood type carbohydrates into the membranes of red blood cells?
What is the role of recognition sites created by certain lipids on cell surfaces?
What is the role of recognition sites created by certain lipids on cell surfaces?
Flashcards
Enzyme Mutases
Enzyme Mutases
Catalyze the transfer of a functional group within a molecule.
Enzyme Isomerases
Enzyme Isomerases
Catalyze the rearrangement of atoms within a molecule to form an isomer.
Enzyme Ligases
Enzyme Ligases
Join two molecules using energy from ATP or a similar nucleotide.
Enzyme Hydrolases
Enzyme Hydrolases
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Enzyme Pyrophosphatase
Enzyme Pyrophosphatase
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Enzyme Transaminases
Enzyme Transaminases
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Enzyme Kinases
Enzyme Kinases
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Enzyme Carboxylases
Enzyme Carboxylases
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Oxireductases
Oxireductases
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Oxidation
Oxidation
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Reduction
Reduction
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Lactate Dehydrogenase
Lactate Dehydrogenase
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HMG-CoA reductase
HMG-CoA reductase
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Transferases
Transferases
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Pyruvate Decarboxylase
Pyruvate Decarboxylase
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Isomerases
Isomerases
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Alanine racemase
Alanine racemase
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Enzyme Classification
Enzyme Classification
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Lyases
Lyases
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Dehydratases
Dehydratases
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Decarboxylases
Decarboxylases
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Deaminases
Deaminases
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Hydratases
Hydratases
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Lock and Key Model
Lock and Key Model
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Induced Fit Model
Induced Fit Model
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Competitive Inhibition
Competitive Inhibition
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Non-competitive inhibitor
Non-competitive inhibitor
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Active site
Active site
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Apoenzyme
Apoenzyme
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Cofactor
Cofactor
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Holoenzyme
Holoenzyme
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Catalyst
Catalyst
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LDL & HDL
LDL & HDL
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Peptide Bond
Peptide Bond
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Dipeptide
Dipeptide
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Tripeptide
Tripeptide
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Oligopeptide
Oligopeptide
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Polypeptide
Polypeptide
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Protein Denaturation
Protein Denaturation
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Factors that Affect Denaturation
Factors that Affect Denaturation
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Heat Denaturation
Heat Denaturation
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pH Denaturation
pH Denaturation
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Organic Solvents Denaturation
Organic Solvents Denaturation
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Fatty Acids
Fatty Acids
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Solubility of Fatty Acids
Solubility of Fatty Acids
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Melting point of Fatty Acids
Melting point of Fatty Acids
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Carboxyl Group
Carboxyl Group
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Hydrophilic
Hydrophilic
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Hydrophobic
Hydrophobic
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Saturation of Fatty Acids
Saturation of Fatty Acids
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Fatty Acid Structure
Fatty Acid Structure
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Solubility: Chain Length
Solubility: Chain Length
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Solubility: Double Bonds
Solubility: Double Bonds
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Saturated Fatty Acids: Structure
Saturated Fatty Acids: Structure
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Saturated Fatty Acids: Properties
Saturated Fatty Acids: Properties
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Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Structure
Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Structure
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Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Properties
Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Properties
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Short Chain Fatty Acids: Solubility
Short Chain Fatty Acids: Solubility
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Solubility Summary
Solubility Summary
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What is hydrogenation?
What is hydrogenation?
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What are antioxidants?
What are antioxidants?
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Why are antioxidants added to food?
Why are antioxidants added to food?
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What are enzymes?
What are enzymes?
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What is an active site?
What is an active site?
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Cerebroside
Cerebroside
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Glucocerebroside
Glucocerebroside
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Galactocerebroside
Galactocerebroside
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Sulfatide
Sulfatide
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Ganglioside
Ganglioside
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Cell Membrane
Cell Membrane
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Phospholipid
Phospholipid
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Sphingomyelin
Sphingomyelin
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Cholesterol
Cholesterol
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Bile Acids
Bile Acids
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Glycolipids
Glycolipids
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Ceramide
Ceramide
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Phosphatidic Acid
Phosphatidic Acid
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Lipid Bilayer
Lipid Bilayer
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Myelin Sheath
Myelin Sheath
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Structural Role of Phospholipids
Structural Role of Phospholipids
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What makes phospholipids ideal for cell membrane function?
What makes phospholipids ideal for cell membrane function?
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What is the function of glycolipids in the cell membrane?
What is the function of glycolipids in the cell membrane?
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Taurocholate
Taurocholate
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Glycocholate
Glycocholate
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Saturated Fats
Saturated Fats
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Monounsaturated Fats
Monounsaturated Fats
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Polyunsaturated Fats
Polyunsaturated Fats
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Trans-Monounsaturated Fats
Trans-Monounsaturated Fats
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Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols
Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols
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Saponification
Saponification
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Oxidation of Fats
Oxidation of Fats
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Enzymes
Enzymes
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Cerumen
Cerumen
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Sebum
Sebum
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Lanolin
Lanolin
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Beeswax
Beeswax
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Polar Basic Side Chain
Polar Basic Side Chain
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Glucogenic Amino Acids
Glucogenic Amino Acids
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
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Primary Protein Structure
Primary Protein Structure
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Secondary Protein Structure
Secondary Protein Structure
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Enzyme Inhibition
Enzyme Inhibition
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Suicide Inhibition
Suicide Inhibition
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What are examples of enzyme inhibitors?
What are examples of enzyme inhibitors?
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How do heavy metals inhibit enzymes?
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How do organophosphates inhibit enzymes?
How do organophosphates inhibit enzymes?
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Example of an organophosphate inhibitor
Example of an organophosphate inhibitor
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How do competitive inhibitors affect enzyme activity?
How do competitive inhibitors affect enzyme activity?
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Chiral Carbon
Chiral Carbon
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Glycine (Gly)
Glycine (Gly)
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Stereoisomers
Stereoisomers
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R-Group
R-Group
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Hydrophobic Interaction
Hydrophobic Interaction
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Ketogenic Amino Acids
Ketogenic Amino Acids
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Maple Syrup Urine Disease
Maple Syrup Urine Disease
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Why is Glycine the only achiral amino acid?
Why is Glycine the only achiral amino acid?
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Central Dogma
Central Dogma
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Replication
Replication
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Transcription
Transcription
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Translation
Translation
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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
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Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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What is the function of tRNA?
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What are the types of enzyme inhibitors?
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What are transferases?
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What are hydrolases?
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What are ligases?
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What are isomerases?
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What are oxidoreductases?
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What are lyases?
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What are mutases?
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What are carboxylases?
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Bile Salts: Key Players
Bile Salts: Key Players
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Fats: Saturated vs. Unsaturated
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Trans Fats: The Bad Guys
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Saponification: Making Soap
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Oxidation of Fats: Going Rancid
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Waxes: Water-Repellent
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What are Transaminases?
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Enzyme Specificity
Enzyme Specificity
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What are Pyrophosphatases?
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Glycine
Glycine
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Amino Acid Side Chain
Amino Acid Side Chain
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Nonpolar Side Chain
Nonpolar Side Chain
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Polar Side Chain
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Acidic Side Chain
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Basic Side Chain
Basic Side Chain
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What causes Alzheimer's disease?
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What causes Parkinson's disease?
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Amino Acid Modification
Amino Acid Modification
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Protein Misfolding
Protein Misfolding
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Alpha Helix
Alpha Helix
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Beta Pleated Sheet
Beta Pleated Sheet
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Tertiary Structure
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Quaternary Structure
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Chaperones
Chaperones
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What is a peptide?
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What is a protein?
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Alzheimer's Disease
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Quality Control Mechanisms
Quality Control Mechanisms
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mRNA
mRNA
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Codon
Codon
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DNA Replication
DNA Replication
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Start Codon
Start Codon
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Stop Codon
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What makes mRNA unique?
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Eicosanoids
Eicosanoids
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Arachidonic Acid
Arachidonic Acid
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Simple Glycerides
Simple Glycerides
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Triacylglycerol
Triacylglycerol
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Sphingolipids
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Mixed Triacylglycerol
Mixed Triacylglycerol
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Simple Triacylglycerol
Simple Triacylglycerol
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What is the difference between simple and mixed triacylglycerols?
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Why are triacylglycerols important?
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Prosthetic Group
Prosthetic Group
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Metal Ions
Metal Ions
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Substrate
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LDL
LDL
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HDL
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Hydrogenation
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Antioxidant
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Rancidity
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DNA Forms: B form
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DNA Forms: A form
DNA Forms: A form
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DNA Forms: Z form
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Point Mutation
Point Mutation
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Silent Mutation
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Missense Mutation
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Nonsense Mutation
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What is ceramide?
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Phospholipids: Polar Head, Nonpolar Tail
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Function of Phospholipids in Membranes
Function of Phospholipids in Membranes
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Role of Glycolipids in Cell Membranes
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What is the function of sphingomyelin in the myelin sheath?
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Ceramides in the Plasma Membrane
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What is oxidation?
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What is reduction?
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Activation Energy
Activation Energy
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Enzyme Function
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Saturated Fatty Acids
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What do enzymes do?
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Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
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What is a metalloenzyme?
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How do enzymes affect activation energy?
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What are statins?
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Amphipathic
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Waxes: Melting Point
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Waxes: Insulator
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Enzymes: Catalysts
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What is the difference between cerebroside and ganglioside?
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What is the importance of phospholipids in cell membranes?
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What is the function of glycolipids?
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What are eicosanoids involved with?
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What is a key difference between simple and mixed triacylglycerols?
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What is the main role of simple glycerides?
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Chain Length & Melting Point
Chain Length & Melting Point
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Unsaturated Fatty Acids & Melting Point
Unsaturated Fatty Acids & Melting Point
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Saturated vs. Unsaturated
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What affects fatty acid solubility?
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Good Cholesterol (HDL)
Good Cholesterol (HDL)
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Bad Cholesterol (LDL)
Bad Cholesterol (LDL)
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What is Oxidation of Fats?
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Amyloid-beta Misfolding
Amyloid-beta Misfolding
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Difference Between Peptides and Proteins
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What are neurotransmitters?
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Tertiary Protein Structure
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Quaternary Protein Structure
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What is a Substrate?
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Types of RNA
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Frameshift Mutation
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Deletion Mutation
Deletion Mutation
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Duplication Mutation
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Inversion Mutation
Inversion Mutation
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Translocation Mutation
Translocation Mutation
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Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
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What are the three steps of PCR?
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Lipid Classification
Lipid Classification
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Types of Lipids
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Aspirin and Stomach Acid
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Thromboxanes
Thromboxanes
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Aspirin and Dengue Fever
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Trans Fatty Acids: Bad for You?
Trans Fatty Acids: Bad for You?
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Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins
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Leukotrienes
Leukotrienes
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Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
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Omega-6 Fatty Acids
Omega-6 Fatty Acids
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Suicide Inhibition (Irreversible)
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What are cofactors?
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What is a holoenzyme?
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What is the substrate of an enzyme?
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What is an enzyme catalyst?
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What are LDLs?
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What is the difference between a competitive and non-competitive inhibitor?
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What is the induced fit model of enzyme-substrate binding?
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Nucleotide Deletion
Nucleotide Deletion
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Nucleotide Insertion
Nucleotide Insertion
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Nucleotide Duplication
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Chromosomal Inversion
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Chromosomal Translocation
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Butyric Acid
Butyric Acid
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Water Soluble
Water Soluble
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Essential Fatty Acids (EFA)
Essential Fatty Acids (EFA)
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Chain Elongation
Chain Elongation
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Desaturation
Desaturation
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Cis vs. Trans Fatty Acids
Cis vs. Trans Fatty Acids
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Melting Point
Melting Point
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Boiling Point
Boiling Point
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Double Bonds
Double Bonds
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Bile Salts: Most Important
Bile Salts: Most Important
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Fats vs Oils: Key Difference
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What is Saponification?
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Fat Oxidation: What happens?
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Hydrogenation of Fatty Acids
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What is Cholesterol?
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What are Bile Acids?
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What are Phospholipids?
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Sphingosine
Sphingosine
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Function of glycolipids in the membrane?
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What is 25% of the total lipids in a human?
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Study Notes
DNA vs RNA
- DNA is found in the cell nucleus
- DNA stores and transfers genetic information
- DNA is passed from existing cells to new cells
- RNA occurs in all parts of a cell
- RNA's primary function is protein synthesis
Purines vs Pyrimidines
- There are five nitrogenous bases in total
- Purines are double ring structures
- Pyrimidines are single ring structures
- If married, you'll say GA (Purines)
- If single, you’ll CUT the relationship (Pyrimidines)
Nucleoside formation
- The nitrogenous base is connected to C1
- C2 differentiates the sugar from H and OH
- C5 is where the phosphate is located
Structural characteristics of DNA
- DNA is made of two polynucleotides running anti-parallel
- One strand runs from 5' to 3' with the other strand running 3' to 5'
- The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside
- The hydrophobic bases are on the inside
Base Pairing
- A purine always pairs with a pyrimidine
- A pairs with T and G pairs with C
- This pairing is called complementary base pairing
DNA Replication
- Helicase unwinds the DNA and separates the strands
- Primase anneals RNA primers
- Polymerase III copies each strand
- Polymerase I replaces the primers with DNA nucleotides
- Ligase seals everything up
Transcription
- The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA
- DNA segments that produce messenger RNA encode proteins
RNA in Protein Synthesis
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) makes up the ribosome
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids to the ribosome
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries information to the ribosome, specifying the amino acid sequence of a protein
Translation
- mRNA is translated into protein
- A sequence of three mRNA nucleotides codes for a specific amino acid
- The order of codons determines the order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
Mutations
- A change in the usual DNA sequence at a particular gene locus
- Mutations can be harmful, beneficial, or neutral
Point Mutation
- A change in a single DNA base pair
- Silence mutation - causes no change in the activity of the protein
- Missense mutation - substitution of one amino acid for another in a protein
- Nonsense mutation - results in a shortened protein
Frameshift Mutation
- The addition or loss of a DNA base changes a gene's reading frame
- Results in a nonfunctional protein
Central Dogma
- Replication: Creation of identical DNA copies
- Transcription: Genetic messages are read and carried out of the nucleus to the ribosomes for protein synthesis
- Translation: Genetic messages are decoded to create proteins
Lipid
- A lipid is an organic compound that is insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents
- Lipids are classified based on solubility, not on functional groups
- They are classified into: energy-storage lipids, membrane lipids, emulsification lipids, chemical messenger lipids, protective-coating lipids
Fatty Acids
- Structural components of lipids
- Members of the carboxylic acid family
- A hydrocarbon chain with a terminal carboxyl group
- Saturated fatty acids: solid at room temp
- Unsaturated fatty acids: liquid at room temp
Essential fatty acids (EFA)
- Animals cannot insert double bonds at the methyl end of the fatty acid molecule, at n-6 and n-3
- The animals need n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in their diet
Prostaglandins
- A 20-carbon fatty-acid derivative with a cyclopentane ring and oxygen-containing functional groups
- Involved in many physiological processes, including body temperature regulation, gastric juice secretion, mucus production, smooth muscle contraction & enhancing inflammatory responses
Thromboxanes
- 20-carbon fatty-acid derivative with a cyclic ether ring and oxygen- containing functional groups
- Promotes platelet aggregation, contributing to blood clot formation & reducing blood flow, to the site of the clot
Leukotrienes
- 20-carbon fatty-acid derivative containing three conjugated double bonds and hydroxyl groups
- Promotes inflammation, leukocyte aggregation & vascular permeability. Also contributes to allergic & hypersensitivity responses
Simple Glycerides
- Formed by the esterification of glycerol and fatty acids.
- The primary function is energy storage (in the form of fat: triglycerides).
Triacylglycerol
- The major fat storage molecule
- A triacylglycerol is formed from one glycerol and three fatty acids.
- Energy yield from 9 cal/g is higher when compared to carbs or proteins
- Compact form as it does not accompany water
Naming a Triacylglycerol
- A mixed triacylglycerol contains different fatty acids.
- A simple triacylglycerol contains the same fatty acid
Phospholipids
- Contain a phosphate group
- Frequently contain nitrogenous bases
- Structural lipids mainly in membranes
Sphingolipids
- Parent structure = sphingosine, an 18-carbon molecule
- Functions as recognition sites on cell surfaces & in the plasma membrane of neurons
- Glycerophospholipids and sphingophospholipids are frequently found in cell membranes
Cholesterol
- Major & most known steroid in the body
- Has 4 rings (cyclopentanoperhydropenanthrine)
- A precursor of other steroids including bile acids & sex hormones
Hormones from the adrenal cortex
- Cortisol: dominant glucocorticoid in humans.
- Important in stress adaptation & affects on blood pressure & Nat uptake
- Aldosterone: promotes blood pressure & fluid volume & Increases Nat uptake
Sex hormones
- Testosterone is the male sex hormone
- Estradiol is the main female sex hormone. Both responsible for secondary sex characteristics.
Protein structural organization
- Primary Structure: Linear sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
- Secondary Structure: Local folding patterns of the polypeptide chain (e.g., alpha helix, beta pleated sheet)
- Tertiary Structure: Overall 3D shape of the polypeptide chain
- Quaternary Structure: Structure of proteins that have more than one polypeptide chain
Protein misfolding
- Abnormal three-dimensional protein structure, deviating from its native conformation
- Implicated in several diseases
Amino acids and protein organization
- Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together through peptide bonds. There are about 700 amino acids found in nature, but only 20 are used in proteins.
- The side chains of amino acids dictate properties
- Proteins can be essential or nonessential
- Amino acids determine protein properties
Isoelectric Point
- The pH at which an amino acid solution has no net charge
- Reliant on the number of protons/charges of an amino acid
Sterochemistry of Amino Acids
- Mirror image pairs of amino acids are designated L and D and are called enantiomers.
- Proteins are assembled from L-amino acids.
Classification of Amino Acid - Side Chain
- Amino acids are classified based on the polarity of their side chains (Non-polar, polar neutral, polar acidic or polar basic).
Classification of Enzyme
- Oxidoreductases: Catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions involving the transfer of electrons or hydrogen atoms
- Transferases: Catalyze the transfer of a functional group from one molecule to another
- Hydrolases: Catalyze the hydrolysis of a chemical bond by the addition of water
- Lyases: Catalyze the cleavage of a chemical bond by means other than hydrolysis or oxidation
- Isomerases: Catalyze the isomerization of a molecule (structural rearrangement)
- Ligases: Join two molecules together, using energy input (often from ATP hydrolysis)
Kinetics of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
- Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are often second-order reactions (velocity changes with substrate concentration).
- Vmax represents the maximum velocity of an enzymatic reaction.
- Km represents the substrate concentration at which half the enzyme active sites are occupied.
- Enzymes and substrates bind to increase reaction rate; affinity affects Km.
Enzyme Inhibition
- Competitive inhibition: Inhibitor competes with the substrate for binding.
- Uncompetitive inhibition: The inhibitor can bind only to the enzyme-substrate complex.
- Suicide/Irreversible inhibition: Inhibitor binds to the enzyme and forms a permanent or covalent bond, inactivating the enzyme.
Factors affecting Enzyme activity
- Temperature
- pH
- Substrate concentration
- Enzyme concentration
- Presence of inhibitors or activators
- Salt concentration
Important Metabolite Tests
- Test for proteins (e.g., Biuret test, Reduced sulfur test)
- Tests for lipids (e.g., solubility and emulsification tests)
- Test for reducing sugars (e.g., Benedict's test)
- Test for unsaturation (e.g., bromine test)
Acrolein Test
- To determine the presence of glycerine in a fat. A positive result is indicated by a pungent odor.
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