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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus?
Which part of the brain controls the coordination of muscle movement?
Which layer of the eye is responsible for focusing images onto the retina?
What occurs during sensory adaptation?
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Where are taste sensory receptors primarily located?
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Which component of the eye provides nutrients to the cornea?
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What type of sensory receptors are involved in touch?
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How does the right side of the brain interact with the body?
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What is the primary function of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
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Which part of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for preparing the body for stress?
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Which lobe of the brain is responsible for controlling personality and higher-level cognitive functioning?
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What is the role of the corpus callosum in the brain?
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What is one characteristic of the white matter in the spinal cord?
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Which is an effect of the parasympathetic nervous system?
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In which area of the brain does the thalamus reside?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of the sympathetic nervous system?
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Which part of the nervous system is primarily responsible for decision making?
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What type of neuron connects sensory neurons to motor neurons?
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What is the primary function of glial cells in the nervous system?
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In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which cells form the myelin sheath around axons?
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Which part of the nervous system carries information from the CNS to the effectors?
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The autonomic pathway is primarily responsible for which type of control?
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Which component of a neuron is responsible for carrying impulses away from the cell body?
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Which of the following pathways is part of the peripheral nervous system and involves conscious control?
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What is the primary function of the Eustachian Tube?
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Which part of the inner ear is primarily responsible for dynamic equilibrium?
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What happens to the hair cells in the cochlea when fluid moves due to sound vibrations?
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How does the cochlea protect itself from loud noises?
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What is the role of the otoliths found in the vestibular system?
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Which type of hearing loss is caused by damage to the hair cells?
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The structure primarily responsible for converting sound wave vibrations into electrochemical impulses is the?
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What is the function of the round window membrane in the inner ear?
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What hormone is released by the posterior pituitary when the body needs to conserve water?
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What effect does increased thyroxine have on blood sugar levels?
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What condition is characterized by the body's inability to produce enough ADH?
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What hormone is released when blood sugar levels are low?
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Which condition is a symptom of hyperthyroidism?
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What is the role of calcitonin in the body?
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What is a common symptom of Diabetes Mellitus?
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What causes a goiter?
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Study Notes
Nervous System
- The Nervous System is divided into the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
- The CNS is the decision maker, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
- The PNS feeds information into and out of the CNS.
- The PNS is divided into the sensory pathway and motor pathway.
- The sensory pathway carries information from the sensory receptors to the CNS.
- The motor pathway carries information from the CNS to the effectors, which can be muscles or glands.
- The motor pathway is further divided into the somatic pathway and the autonomic pathway.
- The somatic pathway is voluntary and under conscious control (e.g., moving your arm).
- The autonomic pathway is involuntary and under unconscious control (e.g., regulating heart rate).
- The autonomic pathway is further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways.
- The sympathetic pathway is stimulatory and speeds you up, prepares the body for stress.
- The parasympathetic pathway returns the body to normal, restoring homeostasis.
5 major components of the Nervous System
- Stimulus: A highly specific event that initiates a response.
- Receptor: A specialized structure that receives the stimulus.
- Sensory Pathway: Carries information from the receptor to the CNS.
- Modulator/regulator: Processes and integrates information within the CNS.
- Motor Pathway: Carries information from the CNS to the effector.
- Effector: A muscle or gland that carries out the response.
- Action: The final response generated by the effector.
Neurons vs. Nerves
- Neurons are individual nerve cells, the basic functional units of the nervous system.
- Nerves are bundles of neurons, similar to electrical wires.
Three Types of Neurons
- Motor Neuron: Carries information from the CNS to effectors (muscles/glands). Located in the PNS.
- Sensory Neuron: Carries information from a sensory receptor to the CNS. Located in the PNS.
- Interneuron: Connects sensory neurons to motor neurons, and can connect two or more neurons. Found in the CNS.
Glial Cells
- Glial cells nourish neurons, remove waste, and defend against infection.
- They outnumber neurons 10 to 1.
Structures of a Neuron
- Dendrites: Receive impulses from previous neurons and carry them to the cell body.
- Cell Body: Produces chemicals needed by the neuron, performs metabolism.
- Axon: Carries impulses from the cell body to the synapse.
- Myelin Sheath: A fatty white covering around the axon, formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Increases the speed of transmission.
Axon and Myelin Sheath
- The myelin sheath is formed by glial cells.
- In the CNS, oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath.
- In the PNS, Schwann cells form the myelin sheath.
- The myelin sheath is essential for efficient nerve impulse transmission.
Autonomic Nervous System
- The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions.
- It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways.
- Sympathetic Pathway: Prepares the body for stress, has effects like increased heart rate, breathing rate, metabolism and blood flow (vessels dilate), pupil dilation, and decreased peristalsis.
- Parasympathetic Pathway: Returns the body to normal (rest and digest), has effects like decreased heart rate, breathing rate, metabolism and blood flow (vessels constrict), pupil constriction, and increased peristalsis.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
- The brain is protected by the skull and three protective membranes called meninges.
- Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates between the meninges and the central canal of the spinal cord.
- CSF acts as a shock absorber and transports nutrients and waste.
Spinal Cord
- Connects sensory and motor nerves to the brain.
- Contains white matter (myelinated axons) and gray matter (unmyelinated axons).
- The spinal cord does not regenerate because it lacks the necessary glial cells for repair.
Brain
- The brain is the control center of the nervous system.
- It is divided into three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Forebrain
- Cerebrum: The largest and most highly developed part of the brain.
- Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the cerebrum, responsible for higher cognitive functions, sensory processing, and motor control.
- Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum, allowing them to communicate.
- Thalamus: Coordinates and interprets sensory information.
- Hypothalamus: Controls endocrine function, links the nervous and endocrine systems.
- Pituitary Gland: Connected to the hypothalamus, secrets hormones that regulate various bodily functions.
Midbrain
- Relays information between the forebrain and hindbrain.
- Involved in auditory and visual processing, as well as motor control.
Hindbrain
- Cerebellum: Coordinates muscle movement, balance, and posture.
- Medulla Oblongata: Controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
- Pons: Relays information between the medulla and cerebellum, involved in sleep and arousal.
Senses
- Sensory receptors detect stimuli from the environment.
- Sensory neurons carry information from receptors to the brain.
- Sensation occurs when nerve impulses reach the cerebrum.
- Perception is how the cerebellum interprets the meaning of sensory information.
- Sensory adaptation occurs when receptors adjust to constant stimulation.
Taste and Smell
- Taste buds on the tongue detect chemicals dissolved in saliva.
- Olfactory cells in the nose detect airborne particles.
- Both senses exhibit sensory adaptation.
Touch
- Sensory receptors located all over the body, especially in the genitals, fingers, tongue, and lips.
- Sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature changes.
Vision
- Sclera: Outer layer of the eye that supports and protects inner layers. Includes the cornea and aqueous humor.
- Choroid: Middle layer, including the iris, lens, and vitreous humor.
- Retina: Inner layer containing photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) for light detection.
Hearing
- Outer Ear: Collects sound waves and directs them to the eardrum.
- Middle Ear: Contains three tiny bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) that amplify sound waves.
- Inner Ear: Contains fluid-filled structures responsible for balance (vestibule and semicircular canals) and hearing (cochlea).
Cochlea
- Contains the Organ of Corti, the hearing apparatus with hair cells attached to the basilar membrane.
- Hair cells bend when sound waves cause fluid movement, triggering nerve impulses.
Types of Hearing Loss
- Nerve Deafness: Damage to the hair cells in the cochlea.
- Conduction Deafness: Damage to the sound conduction system in the outer or middle ear.
Balance/Equilibrium
- Static Equilibrium: Detects head position using otoliths in the saccule and utricle.
- Dynamic Equilibrium: Detects body position and movement using fluid in the semicircular canals.
Endocrine System
- The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
- Hormones regulate a wide range of bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Major Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
- Pituitary Gland: Master gland, secretes hormones that regulate other glands, including growth hormone, prolactin, and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
- Thyroid Gland: Secretes thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), hormones that regulate metabolism.
- Parathyroid Glands: Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates blood calcium levels.
- Adrenal Glands: Secrete adrenaline (epinephrine) and cortisol, hormones involved in stress response.
- Pancreas: Secretes insulin (lowers blood sugar) and glucagon (raises blood sugar).
- Ovaries: Produce estrogen and progesterone, hormones involved in female reproduction.
- Testes: Produce testosterone, a hormone involved in male reproduction.
Hormones and Their Functions
- Growth Hormone: Promotes growth and development.
- Prolactin: Stimulates milk production.
- FSH: Stimulates the development of eggs in females and sperm in males.
- Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): Regulate metabolism.
- Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Increases blood calcium levels.
- Adrenaline (Epinephrine): Prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses.
- Cortisol: Involved in long-term stress response.
- Insulin: Lowers blood sugar levels by promoting glucose uptake into cells.
- Glucagon: Raises blood sugar levels by converting glycogen into glucose.
- Estrogen: Involved in female reproductive development and menstrual cycle.
- Progesterone: Prepares the uterus for pregnancy.
- Testosterone: Involved in male reproductive development and secondary sexual characteristics.
Diabetes Mellitus
- A disorder characterized by high blood sugar levels due to insufficient insulin production or resistance to insulin.
- Symptoms include glucose in the urine, frequent urination, fatigue, and excessive thirst.
Thyroid Gland
- Produces thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) which regulate metabolism.
- Also produces calcitonin, which lowers blood calcium levels.
- Located in the front of the trachea, in the neck.
Hypothyroidism
- Condition where the thyroid gland produces insufficient thyroid hormone.
- Symptoms include weight gain, fatigue, sensitivity to cold, and dry skin.
- Treatment typically involves thyroid hormone replacement therapy.
Goiter
- Enlargement of the thyroid gland due to lack of iodine in the diet, often leading to hypothyroidism.
- Iodine is essential for the production of thyroid hormones.
- The thyroid expands in size due to an accumulation of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
Hyperthyroidism
- Condition involving excessive production of thyroid hormones.
- Symptoms include sweating, anxiety, weight loss, heat intolerance, racing heart, and bulging eyes.
- Treatment may involve medication or surgery to reduce thyroid hormone production.
Calcitonin
- Released when blood calcium levels are too high.
- Increases calcium excretion in urine, decreases calcium release from bones, and decreases calcium absorption in the small intestines.
- This ultimately lowers blood calcium levels back to normal.
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