Digital Divide: Origins and History

Origin of the Digital Divide

• The term "digital divide" originated in the 1990s, coined by Larry Irving, the Assistant Secretary for Communications and Information Administrator at the U.S. Department of Commerce.
• Irving used the term in a series of reports by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) called "Falling Through the Net".
• These reports highlighted the gap in access to information services between those who could afford computer hardware and software and low-income families
• The term gained popularity in the mid-1990s to explain differences between those with and without Internet access.
• Some argue the concept dates to the first trans-atlantic telegraph in 1858, which mainly benefited those with access and knowledge to use it.
• Even before the term "digital divide," concerns were raised, such as in the 1980s UNESCO's McBride report, which questioned if computerisation would foster democracy or cause inequalities.
• The "information rich/information poor" theme was a significant precursor to the digital divide concept.

Definition of the Digital Divide

• The digital divide is the growing gap between the information rich and the information poor, often described as "information haves" versus "information have nots”.
• It can also be seen as the disparity between "fast" economies and "slow" economies.
• The definition often emphasizes the info-structure (actual information content people can access via ICT) or the lack thereof.
• It highlights the country's IT infrastructure (physical cables, connections, computers, servers), however focusing on IT infrastructure is considered problematic.
• The American Library Association (ALA) defines the digital divide as differences due to geography, race, economic status, gender, and physical ability in access to and skills to use information through the Internet and other technologies.
• It also refers to disparities between societies and nations in having access to digital infrastructure and services.
• This includes disparities within countries among economically disadvantaged groups, ethnic and linguistic minorities, and individuals based on gender, income, age, and urban/rural location.
• Lor (2003), based on Rao (2000), argues that the digital divide has multiple dimensions, suggesting the "eight C's of success in the Internet economy".
• The eight C's are: Connectivity, Content, Community, Commerce, Capacity, Culture, Cooperation, and Capital.
• A digital divide can mean a shortage or problems with any of these eight dimensions.

Types of Divides Found

• Molnár (2003) classifies three digital divide types based on the social diffusion of technological innovations.
• Access divide (Early digital divide): Occurs in the early adaptation stage and describes the difference between those with and without access to ICT, where strong contrasts are seen across income, settlement type, education, ethnic groups, and age.
• Usage divide (Primary digital divide): Emerges in the take-off stage and describes the difference between users and non-users of ICT, where differences based on gender, ethnicity, settlement type, and education may decline compared to the access divide, but divides based on income and age often persist.
• Divide stemming from the quality of use (Secondary digital divide): Characterizes the saturation stage and describes the difference between users and users, reflecting qualitative differences in Internet use based on skills (e.g., online navigation) and empowerment (e.g., effectiveness of use, social relationships).

Categorical Inequalities in Society That Produce a Digital Divide

• Personal and positional relational categories contribute to the unequal distribution of resources needed for new media access.
• Personal categories include: age or generation, sex or gender, race or ethnicity, personality, intelligence or cleverness.
• Positional categories include: labor, household, nation, education.
• Van Dijk and Hacker (2003) highlight growing divides in hardware possession among different categories of income, employment, education, age, and ethnicity in the 1980s and 1990s.
• The UNDP (1999) noted that Internet access often divides the educated from illiterate, men from women, rich from poor, young from old, and urban from rural.

Number of Kinds of Access to ICTs That Can Cause a Digital Divide

• Van Dijk (1999) identifies four successive kinds of access that represent barriers and contribute to the digital divide.
• Mental access: Lack of elementary digital experience due to a lack of interest, computer anxiety, and the perceived unattractiveness of the new technology.
• Material access: No possession of computers and network connections.
• Skills access: Lack of digital skills caused by insufficient user-friendliness and inadequate education or social support. Includes instrumental skills (operating hardware/software) and informational skills (searching, selecting, processing, and applying information). Includes strategic skills (ability to use digital means to improve one's position in society).
• Usage access: Lack of significant usage opportunities. This refers to how and for what purposes people use ICTs.
• "Digital Divide Part 2.pdf" also outlines similar categories, including motivational access, material access, skills access, and usage access.
• Economic wealth is a major factor in material access, along with the availability and cost of technology, literacy, education, language skills, level of democracy, and cultural attraction to technology.

Measure of Inclusion and Exclusion in the 7 Contexts of Participation

• There are 7 contexts of participation: Economic, Educational, Social, Spatial, Cultural, Political, and Institutional.
• Disparities in access to and use of ICTs can affect an individual's ability to participate fully in each of these areas, leading to various forms of exclusion.
• Economic participation: Exclusion from ICTs can hinder individuals from participating fully in the modern economy.
• Educational participation: The digital divide can create disparities in educational opportunities.
• Social participation: ICTs play a significant role in modern social interactions and community building.
• Spatial participation: The digital divide often has a geographical dimension, with rural and disadvantaged communities frequently facing barriers to access.
• Cultural participation: Culture is one of the "eight C's" of the internet economy, and the digital divide can limit access to and participation in online cultural resources.
• Political participation: ICTs are increasingly used for political engagement, information dissemination, and civic activism.
• Institutional participation: Many institutions are relying on digital platforms for delivering services and engaging with the public.
• Individuals with greater access to ICTs are more likely to be included and participate fully in these areas, while those with limited access face various forms of exclusion and disadvantage.