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Questions and Answers

What concept does Zeno's paradox of Achilles and the tortoise primarily illustrate?

  • The importance of head starts in races.
  • The application of integral calculus.
  • The concept of infinity.
  • The concept of limits. (correct)

For the function $y = \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6}$, what value does $y$ approach as $x$ approaches -6?

  • -8 (correct)
  • -6
  • The function is undefined at $x = -6$.
  • 0

What is the correct notation for the limit of the function $f(x) = \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6}$ as $x$ approaches -6?

  • $\lim_{x \to -6} \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6} = -6$
  • $\lim_{x \to -6} \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6} = -8$ (correct)
  • $\lim_{x \to 0} \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6} = -2$
  • $\lim_{x \to 6} \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6} = -8$

Using differentiation from first principles, which expression defines the derivative $f'(x)$ of a function $f(x)$?

<p>$f'(x) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x + h) - f(x)}{h}$ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following notations does NOT represent the derivative of $y = f(x)$?

<p>$\int f(x) dx$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the rules of differentiation, what is the derivative of a constant $k$ with respect to $x$?

<p>0 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the derivative of $5x^3$ with respect to $x$?

<p>$15x^2$ (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the derivative of the sum of two functions, $f(x)$ and $g(x)$, with respect to $x$?

<p>$\frac{d}{dx}[f(x)] + \frac{d}{dx}[g(x)]$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When should you use differentiation from first principles to find the derivative of a function?

<p>When specifically requested or when asked to use the definition of a derivative. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the gradient of a curve at a point and the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that same point?

<p>The gradient of the curve is equal to the gradient of the tangent. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do you find the equation of a tangent to a curve at a given point?

<p>Find the derivative, substitute the x-coordinate into the derivative to find the gradient, and then use the point-slope form to find the equation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the gradient of the tangent to a curve at a point is 2, what is the gradient of the normal to the curve at that point?

<p>$-\frac{1}{2}$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the second derivative of a function indicate?

<p>The rate of change of the gradient of the original function. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If $f''(x) > 0$, what does this indicate about the concavity of the graph of $f(x)$?

<p>Concave up. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common use of the derivative?

<p>Calculating the area under a curve. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the general form of a cubic function?

<p>$f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For a cubic function $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$, how does the sign of $a$ affect the shape and orientation of the graph?

<p>If $a &gt; 0$, the graph rises to the right and falls to the left. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do you find the y-intercept of a cubic function $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$?

<p>Set $x = 0$. The y-intercept is $y = d$. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a stationary point on a curve?

<p>A point where the derivative $f'(x)$ is zero. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are local maximum and local minimum points defined for cubic functions?

<p>Local maximum: function changes from increasing to decreasing; Local minimum: function changes from decreasing to increasing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a point of inflection?

<p>The point where the graph changes concavity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of sketching cubic graphs, what does concavity indicate?

<p>Whether the gradient of a curve is increasing or decreasing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in the general method for sketching cubic graphs?

<p>Determine the shape based on the sign of $a$. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using differential calculus in optimization problems?

<p>To determine the stationary points of functions for maximization or minimization. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the derivative relate to the rate of change?

<p>The derivative gives the instantaneous rate of change. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the division rule for polynomials, what is the correct expression when dividing polynomial $a(x)$ by $b(x)$?

<p>$a(x) = b(x) \cdot Q(x) + R(x)$ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a method for factorizing cubic polynomials?

<p>Quadratic Formula (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In synthetic division, what sign should you use for the root of the divisor polynomial?

<p>The opposite sign of the root. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given the cubic polynomial $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$, what is the first step in drawing its graph?

<p>Find the y-intercept. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For a cubic polynomial $ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d = 0$, if $f(k) = 0$, what does this imply according to the Factor and Remainder Theorem?

<p>$x - k$ is a factor. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Remainder Theorem state?

<p>The remainder is found by substituting the root of the divisor into the polynomial. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Remainder Theorem, if you divide a polynomial $p(x)$ by $cx - d$, what is the remainder $R$?

<p>$R = p(d/c)$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the Remainder Theorem, what is the degree of the quotient $Q(x)$ when dividing a polynomial $p(x)$ by a linear polynomial $cx - d$?

<p>One degree less than $p(x)$. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Factor Theorem state?

<p>If $p(\frac{d}{c}) = 0$, then $cx - d$ is a factor of $p(x)$. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If $cx - d$ is a factor of polynomial $p(x)$, how can $p(x)$ be expressed?

<p>$p(x) = (cx - d) \cdot Q(x)$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In solving cubic equations, what role does the Quadratic Formula play?

<p>It is used to solve the quadratic polynomial obtained after dividing out a known factor. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in solving a cubic equation using factorization methods?

<p>Use the Factor Theorem to identify a factor by trial and error. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

After finding a factor of a cubic polynomial, what is the next step in solving the cubic equation?

<p>Factorize the polynomial by dividing out the known factor to obtain a quadratic. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given the function $f(x) = 3x^2 - 2x + 1$, what is the expression for $f'(x)$ using the rules of differentiation?

<p>$6x - 2$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the tangent to a curve at the point $x = 2$ has a gradient of -3, what is the gradient of the normal to the curve at that point?

<p>$\frac{1}{3}$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given $f(x) = x^3 - 6x^2 + 5$, find the interval(s) where $f''(x) > 0$.

<p>$x &gt; 2$ (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Consider a cubic function $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$ with $a < 0$. Which statement accurately describes the end behavior of the graph?

<p>The graph falls to the right and rises to the left. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For the cubic function $f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 + 2$, what are the x-coordinates of the stationary points?

<p>$x = 0$ and $x = 2$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A curve is defined by the equation $y = x^3 - 6x^2$. Determine the interval(s) where the curve is concave up.

<p>$x &gt; 2$ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To optimize variable $A$, which is expressed in terms of variable $x$, using differential calculus, what is the condition to find the minimum value of $A$?

<p>$\frac{dA}{dx} = 0$ and $\frac{d^2A}{dx^2} &gt; 0$ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given the polynomial division $a(x) = (x + 2)(x^2 - x + 3) + R(x)$, what is the degree of the remainder $R(x)$?

<p>0 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When using synthetic division to divide the polynomial $x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 6$ by $(x - 2)$, what value should be used for the root of the divisor?

<p>2 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given that $p(x) = (x - 3)Q(x) + 5$, what is the value of $p(3)$ according to the Remainder Theorem?

<p>5 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of limits, what does it mean for $\lim_{x \to a} f(x) = L$?

<p>As <em>x</em> gets arbitrarily close to <em>a</em>, the value of <em>f(x)</em> gets arbitrarily close to <em>L</em>. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For a function $f(x)$ that is not defined at $x = c$, but $\lim_{x \to c} f(x)$ exists, what can be said about the graph of $f(x)$ at $x = c$?

<p>The graph has a hole at $x = c$. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given $f(x) = x^2$, what expression represents the derivative $f'(x)$ obtained using differentiation from first principles?

<p>$f'(x) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{(x + h)^2 - x^2}{h}$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following expressions represents the derivative of $f(x)$ with respect to $x$?

<p>$\frac{dy}{dx}$ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If $f(x) = kx$, where $k$ is a constant, what represents $f'(x)$?

<p>$k$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the derivative of $f(x) = x^4 + 2x^2 - 5x + 3$ with respect to $x$?

<p>$4x^3 + 4x - 5$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given $f(x) = u(x) - v(x)$, where $u(x)$ and $v(x)$ are differentiable functions, what is the derivative of $f(x)$ with respect to $x$?

<p>$f'(x) = u'(x) - v'(x)$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under what condition is differentiation from first principles absolutely necessary to find the derivative?

<p>When explicitly required by the problem or when finding a derivative using the definition. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the gradient of the tangent to the curve $y = f(x)$ at the point where $x = a$?

<p>The value of the derivative $f'(a)$. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To find the equation of a tangent to a curve at a given point, what must you first determine?

<p>The gradient of the curve at that point and a point on the line. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the gradient of the tangent to a curve at a certain point is $m$, what is the gradient of the normal to the curve at that point?

<p>$-\frac{1}{m}$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the second derivative, $f''(x)$, reveal about the function $f(x)$?

<p>The rate of change of the function's gradient. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If $f''(x) < 0$ over an interval, what does this indicate about the shape of the graph of $f(x)$ in that interval?

<p>The graph is concave down. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these problems cannot be solved using derivatives?

<p>Calculating the area under a curve. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the general equation form of a cubic function?

<p>$f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For a cubic function $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$, how does the sign of 'a' influence the graph's end behavior?

<p>If $a &gt; 0$, the graph rises to the right and falls to the left. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the y-intercept of a cubic function $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$ determined?

<p>By setting $x = 0$ and evaluating $f(0)$. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about a stationary point on a curve?

<p>The derivative of the function is zero. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For a cubic function, what distinguishes a local maximum from a local minimum?

<p>A local maximum is where the function changes from increasing to decreasing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition defines a point of inflection on a curve?

<p>Where the second derivative is zero and changes sign. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does concavity relate to the gradient of a curve?

<p>Concavity describes the rate of change of the gradient. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When initially sketching a cubic graph, what is the significance of determining the sign of the leading coefficient 'a'?

<p>It determines the end behavior and overall shape. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental principle underlies using differential calculus in optimization problems?

<p>Identifying stationary points where maximum or minimum values may occur. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the derivative of a function concretely relate to its rate of change?

<p>The derivative gives the instantaneous rate of change at a point. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In polynomial division, if $a(x)$ is divided by $b(x)$ resulting in a quotient $Q(x)$ and a remainder $R(x)$, which equation correctly represents this division?

<p>$a(x) = b(x) \cdot Q(x) + R(x)$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Besides long division, what is another method for factorizing cubic polynomials?

<p>Synthetic division (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When using synthetic division, what is the significance of the 'root of the divisor polynomial'?

<p>It simplifies the division process by focusing on coefficients. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initial step is crucial when graphing a cubic polynomial function $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$?

<p>Determining the y-intercept by setting $x = 0$. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Factor and Remainder Theorem, what does $f(k) = 0$ imply for the cubic polynomial $f(x)$?

<p>$(x - k)$ is a factor of $f(x)$. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key concept does the Remainder Theorem provide for polynomial algebra?

<p>A direct way to calculate the remainder without polynomial division. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Remainder Theorem, if you divide a polynomial $p(x)$ by $cx - d$, how do you find the remainder, $R$?

<p>$R = p(d/c)$ (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the Remainder Theorem, when dividing a polynomial $p(x)$ by a linear polynomial $cx - d$, what is the nature of the remainder R?

<p>R is always a constant. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Factor Theorem fundamentally assert?

<p>A condition under which a linear expression is a factor of a polynomial. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If $cx - d$ is a factor of the polynomial $p(x)$, how can $p(x)$ be expressed according to the Factor Theorem?

<p>$p(x) = (cx - d) \cdot Q(x)$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Quadratic Formula play in solving cubic equations?

<p>It helps solve for the remaining roots after a cubic equation has been reduced to a quadratic. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In solving cubic equations via factorization, what is a critical initial step?

<p>Identifying a factor of the cubic polynomial. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

After successfully identifying a factor of a cubic polynomial, what is the subsequent step in solving the cubic equation?

<p>Divide the polynomial by the identified factor. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given a function $f(x)$, which of the following expressions represents a situation where simply substituting a value into the function will NOT give you the limit?

<p>$f(x) = \frac{x^2 - 4}{x - 2}$ and finding $\lim_{x \to 2} f(x)$ (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Assume $f(x)$ and $g(x)$ are differentiable functions. Characterize what happens if you know that at point $x=a$, $f'(a) = g'(a)$?

<p>The tangent lines of $f(x)$ and $g(x)$ are parallel at $x=a$. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

You're tasked to rigorously prove that $\lim_{x \to c} x^2 = c^2$ directly from the $\epsilon$-$\delta$ definition of a limit. Which approach would be suitable?

<p>Choose $\delta = \min{1, \frac{\epsilon}{2|c| + 1}}$, because it bounds $|x + c|$ and ensures $|x^2 - c^2| &lt; \epsilon$. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the limit of $f(x)$ as $x$ approaches $a$ exists and is equal to $L$, which of the following statements is always true?

<p>$f(x)$ gets arbitrarily close to $L$ as $x$ gets arbitrarily close to $a$, but $x \neq a$. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about the graph of a function $f(x)$ at $x = c$, if $f(c)$ is undefined but $\lim_{x \to c} f(x) = L$?

<p>The graph has a removable discontinuity (hole) at $(c, L)$. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given the function $f(x) = x^3$, determine $f'(x)$ using differentiation from first principles.

<p>$f'(x) = 3x^2$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given a differentiable function $f(x)$, which of the following expressions is NOT a valid representation of its derivative?

<p>$\lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x) - f(h)}{h}$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If $f(x) = 7x$, what is $f'(x)$?

<p>$7$ (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Determine the derivative of the polynomial function $f(x) = 6x^5 - 4x^3 + 2x - 9$ with respect to $x$.

<p>$f'(x) = 30x^4 - 12x^2 + 2$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given $f(x) = u(x) + v(x)$, where both $u(x)$ and $v(x)$ are differentiable functions, find the derivative of $f(x)$.

<p>$f'(x) = u'(x) + v'(x)$ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under which condition is it essential to use differentiation from first principles to find the derivative?

<p>When the question specifically asks for differentiation using the definition of the derivative. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given a function $f(x)$, the tangent line at $x = a$ is horizontal. What does this imply about the value of $f'(a)$?

<p>$f'(a) = 0$ (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Suppose a function $f(x)$ is differentiable on an interval $(a, b)$, and for some $c$ in $(a, b)$, $f'(c) = 0$ and $f''(c) = 0$. Which of the following is definitively true at $x = c$?

<p>Further analysis is required to determine the nature of the point. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Calculus

The study of how things change, built upon algebra, geometry, and limits, including differential and integral aspects.

Limit

A value that a function 'approaches' as the input gets closer and closer to some value.

Achilles and the Tortoise

Paradox illustrating the concept of limits, where Achilles can never overtake a tortoise with a head start.

Graphical Representation of Limit

A straight line with a hole at $x = -6$, illustrating a limit as $x$ approaches -6, $y$ approaches -8.

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Limit Notation

The limit of the function $y = \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6}$ as $x$ approaches -6 is -8; written as $\lim_{x \to -6} \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6} = -8$.

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Gradient at a Point

Formula used to find the gradient of the tangent to a curve at a specific point, given by $\lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(a + h) - f(a)}{h}$.

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Derivative

Written as $f'(x)$, it describes the gradient of a graph at any point and is defined by $f'(x) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x + h) - f(x)}{h}$.

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Differentiation from First Principles

The process of finding the derivative of a function directly from its definition using limits.

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Derivative Notation

Alternative notations for the derivative of $y = f(x)$ which include $f'(x)$, $y'$, $\frac{dy}{dx}$, $Df(x)$, etc.

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Differential Operators

Symbols like $D$ and $\frac{d}{dx}$ that indicate the operation of differentiation.

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General Rule for Differentiation

Formula: $\frac{d}{dx} [x^n] = n x^{n-1}$, where $n$ is a real number and $n \neq 0$.

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Derivative of a Constant

Formula: $\frac{d}{dx} [k] = 0$, where $k$ is a constant.

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Constant Multiple Rule

Formula: $\frac{d}{dx} [k \cdot f(x)] = k \cdot \frac{d}{dx} [f(x)]$, where $k$ is a constant.

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Derivative of a Sum

Formula: $\frac{d}{dx} [f(x) + g(x)] = \frac{d}{dx} [f(x)] + \frac{d}{dx} [g(x)]$.

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Derivative of a Difference

Formula: $\frac{d}{dx} [f(x) - g(x)] = \frac{d}{dx} [f(x)] - \frac{d}{dx} [g(x)]$.

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Tangent to a Curve

The line that touches a curve at a single point, having the same gradient as the curve at that point.

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Steps to Find Tangent Equation

  1. Find the derivative.
  2. Substitute the x-coordinate into the derivative to find the gradient.
  3. Use point-slope form to find the equation.
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Normal to a Curve

The line perpendicular to the tangent at a given point; the product of its gradient and the tangent's gradient is -1: $m_{\text{tangent}} \times m_{\text{normal}} = -1$.

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Second Derivative

The derivative of the first derivative, denoted as $f''(x)$ or $\frac{d^2 y}{dx^2}$, indicating the change in gradient.

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Uses of the Derivative

Finding stationary points, max/min values, rates of change, and drawing graphs.

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Cubic Function

A function of the form $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$.

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Effect of 'a' on Cubic

Affected by the coefficient $a$; if $a > 0$, graph rises to the right; if $a < 0$, graph falls to the right in $y = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$.

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Finding Intercepts

Set $x = 0$ to find the y-intercept, solve $f(x) = 0$ to find the x-intercepts.

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Stationary Point

A point where the derivative $f'(x) = 0$.

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Local Maximum

A point where the function changes from increasing to decreasing.

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Local Minimum

A point where the function changes from decreasing to increasing.

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Concavity

Indicates whether the gradient is increasing (concave up, $f''(x) > 0$) or decreasing (concave down, $f''(x) < 0$).

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Point of Inflection

Point where the graph changes concavity; $f''(x) = 0$ and changes sign.

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Sketching Cubic Graphs

Consider the sign of $a$, find intercepts, find turning points, determine concavity, and plot points.

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Optimisation Problems

Using differential calculus to find the maximum or minimum value of a variable.

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Rates of Change

Describes how one quantity changes in relation to another; derivative gives instantaneous rate of change.

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Division Rule

For integers: $a = b \cdot q + r$; for polynomials: $a(x) = b(x) \cdot Q(x) + R(x)$, where $b(x) \neq 0$.

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Factorising Cubic Polynomials

Long division and synthetic division.

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Synthetic Division

Write coefficients, use the opposite sign of the root, and get the quotient and remainder.

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Graph of a Cubic Polynomial

  1. Find the y-intercept.
  2. Find the x-intercepts.
  3. Find the stationary points.
  4. Analyze the end behavior.
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Solving Equations in Third Degree

  1. Factor and Remainder Theorem.
  2. Factorise the Polynomial.
  3. Solve for $x$.
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Remainder Theorem

The remainder is given by substituting $\tfrac{d}{c}$ into the polynomial $p(x)$ when divided by $cx - d$; $R = p(\tfrac{d}{c})$.

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Factor Theorem

If $p(\tfrac{d}{c}) = 0$, then $cx - d$ is a factor of $p(x)$.

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Solving Cubic Equations Steps

  1. Factor Theorem to find a factor.
  2. Divide cubic by the factor to get a quadratic.
  3. Solve the quadratic using the quadratic formula.
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Quadratic Formula

For $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$, $x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}$.

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When to use differentiation rules?

Using the rules of differentiation instead of first principles when not specifically required.

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What is the derivative?

The instantaneous rate of change of a function at a specific point.

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How to find stationary points?

Determined by finding where the first derivative equals zero.

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Methods of Factorising Cubic Polynomials

Long division and synthetic division

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What is the quotient polynomial?

The polynomial that results after dividing the original polynomial by a known factor.

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General form when dividing Polynomials

Given a polynomial ( p(x) ) and a divisor ( cx - d ), it can be expressed in the form: ( p(x) = (cx - d) \cdot Q(x) + R )

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Study Notes

Differential Calculus

  • Calculus, derived from algebra and geometry, relies on limits and includes differential and integral calculus.
  • Differential calculus addresses optimization and rates of change.

Limits

  • Limits are the building blocks of calculus.

Achilles and the Tortoise Paradox

  • Zeno's paradox illustrates the concept of limits, where Achilles seems unable to overtake a tortoise with a head start.

Limits and Factorization

  • Consider the function $y = \frac{x^2 + 4x - 12}{x + 6}$.
  • Factorizing the numerator gives $y = \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6}$.
  • Simplifying, $y = x - 2$, but only if $x \neq -6$.
  • At $x = -6$, the function is undefined due to division by zero.
  • As $x$ approaches -6, $y$ approaches -8, indicating a limit.

Graphical Representation

  • The function's graph is a line with a hole at $x = -6$.
  • As $x$ approaches -6, $y$ approaches -8.

Notation for Limits

  • $\lim_{x \to -6} \frac{(x + 6)(x - 2)}{x + 6} = -8$

Differentiation from First Principles

Definition of the Derivative

  • The gradient of the tangent to a curve $y = f(x)$ at $x = a$ is: $\text{Gradient at a point} = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(a + h) - f(a)}{h}$.
  • The derivative $f'(x)$ is defined as: $f'(x) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x + h) - f(x)}{h}$.
  • Differentiation is determining the derivative of a function.

Notation

  • Alternative notations for the derivative: $f'(x) = y' = \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{df}{dx} = \frac{d}{dx}[f(x)] = Df(x) = D_xy$.
  • $D$ and $\frac{d}{dx}$ are differential operators.
  • $\frac{dy}{dx}$ means $y$ differentiated with respect to $x$.
  • $\frac{dy}{dx}$ is not a fraction.

Rules for Differentiation

  • Rules simplify finding derivatives.

Rules for Differentiation

  • General Rule: $\frac{d}{dx} [x^n] = n x^{n-1}$, where $n \in \mathbb{R}$ and $n \neq 0$.
  • Derivative of a Constant: $\frac{d}{dx} [k] = 0$.
  • Constant Multiplied by a Function: $\frac{d}{dx} [k \cdot f(x)] = k \cdot \frac{d}{dx} [f(x)]$.
  • Derivative of a Sum: $\frac{d}{dx} [f(x) + g(x)] = \frac{d}{dx} [f(x)] + \frac{d}{dx} [g(x)]$.
  • Derivative of a Difference: $\frac{d}{dx} [f(x) - g(x)] = \frac{d}{dx} [f(x)] - \frac{d}{dx} [g(x)]$.

When to Use the Rules for Differentiation

  • If not specified, use rules for differentiation.
  • Use first principles only when asked or when using the definition of a derivative.

Notation

  • Alternative notations for the derivative: $f'(x) = y' = \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{df}{dx} = \frac{d}{dx}[f(x)] = Df(x) = D_xy$.
  • $D$ and $\frac{d}{dx}$ are differential operators.
  • ${dy}/{dx}$ means $y$ differentiated with respect to $x$.

Equation of a Tangent to a Curve

  • The derivative describes the gradient of a curve (and tangent).
  • To find the tangent equation:
  • Find the derivative.
  • Substitute the x-coordinate into the derivative to find the gradient.
  • Use the straight-line equation to find the tangent equation.
  • The normal is perpendicular to the tangent, with $m_{\text{tangent}} \times m_{\text{normal}} = -1$.

Second Derivative

  • The second derivative is the derivative of the first derivative and indicates the change in gradient.
  • $f''(x) = \frac{d}{dx}[f'(x)]$.
  • Alternative notation: $y'' = \frac{d}{dx}\left( \frac{dy}{dx} \right) = \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2}$.

Uses of the Derivative

  • Applications include finding tangent line gradients, identifying stationary points, finding maximum/minimum values, describing rates of change, and drawing cubic function graphs.
  • A cubic function: $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$.

Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line

  • Steps:
  • Find $f'(x)$.
  • Calculate $f'(a)$ for the gradient.
  • Calculate $f(a)$ for the y-value.
  • Use $y - y_1 = m(x - x_1)$.

Notation for Second Derivative

  • $f''(x)$, $y''$, $\frac{d^2 y}{dx^2}$

Functions of the Form $y = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$

The Effects of $a$ on a Cubic Function

  • If $a > 0$, the graph rises to the right.
  • If $a < 0$, the graph falls to the right.

Intercepts

  • Y-intercept: Set $x = 0$, so $y = d$.
  • X-intercepts: Solve $f(x) = 0$.

Stationary Points

  • Find $f'(x)$.
  • Solve $f'(x) = 0$ for x-coordinates.
  • Find corresponding y-coordinates by substituting x-values into $f(x)$.

Local Maximum and Local Minimum

  • Local Maximum: Function changes from increasing to decreasing.
  • Local Minimum: Function changes from decreasing to increasing.

Concavity and Points of Inflection

  • Concave Up: Opens upwards, $f''(x) > 0$.
  • Concave Down: Opens downwards, $f''(x) < 0$.
  • Point of Inflection: Graph changes concavity, $f''(x) = 0$ and changes sign.

General Method for Sketching Cubic Graphs

  • Shape: Consider the sign of $a$.
  • Y-intercept: Set $x = 0$.
  • X-intercepts: Solve $ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d = 0$.
  • Turning Points: Solve $f'(x) = 0$.
  • Concavity: Use $f''(x)$ to find points of inflection.
  • Plot points and draw the curve.

Applications of Differential Calculus

  • Optimisation problems.
  • Rates of change.

Optimisation Problems

  • Differential calculus identifies stationary points for graphing and solving max/min problems.

Rates of Change

  • The derivative gives the instantaneous rate of change.

Cubic Polynomials

Simple Division Investigation

  • Division Rule (Integers): $a = b \cdot q + r$, where $b \neq 0$ and $0 \leq r < b$.
  • Division Rule (Polynomials): $a(x) = b(x) \cdot Q(x) + R(x)$, where $b(x) \neq 0$.

Methods for Factorising Cubic Polynomials

  • Long Division.
  • Synthetic Division.

Long Division Formula

  • $a(x) = b(x) \cdot Q(x) + R(x)$

Synthetic Division Formula

  • For $\frac{a(x)}{b(x)}$:
  • Write coefficients of the dividend.
  • Use the opposite sign of the root of the divisor.
  • Perform synthetic division.

General Method for Synthetic Division

  • Given $a(x) = a_3x^3 + a_2x^2 + a_1x + a_0$ and $b(x) = cx - d$:
  • $q_2 = a_3$
  • $q_1 = a_2 + q_2 \cdot \frac{d}{c}$
  • $q_0 = a_1 + q_1 \cdot \frac{d}{c}$
  • $R = a_0 + q_0 \cdot \frac{d}{c}$

Drawing the Graph of a Cubic Polynomial

  • Cubic polynomial form: $f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d$.
  • Find the y-intercept: $y = f(0) = d$
  • Find the x-intercepts: Solve $f(x) = 0$.
  • Find stationary points: Solve $f'(x) = 0$.
  • Identify the end behavior.

Solving Equations in the Third Degree

  • Cubic polynomial: $ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d = 0$.
  • Factor and Remainder Theorem: If $f(k) = 0$, then $x - k$ is a factor.
  • Factorise the Polynomial: Divide by the factor $x - k$.
  • Solve for $x$: Find the remaining factors.

Remainder Theorem EMCMG

  • $R = p(\frac{d}{c})$.
  • The remainder $R$ results from evaluating $p(x)$ at $x = \frac{d}{c}$.

Key Formula

  • Given a polynomial $p(x)$ and a divisor $cx - d$: $R = p(\frac{d}{c})$.

General Form

  • $p(x) = (cx - d) \cdot Q(x) + R$, where $R = p(\frac{d}{c})$.

Important Notes

  • The quotient $Q(x)$ is one degree less than $p(x)$ if $cx - d$ is linear.
  • The remainder $R$ is a constant.

Factor Theorem EMCMH

  • If $p(\frac{d}{c}) = 0$, then $cx - d$ is a factor.
  • If $cx - d$ is a factor of $p(x)$, then $x = \frac{d}{c}$ into $p(x)$ will yield zero.

Key Formulas

  • If $p(\frac{d}{c}) = 0$, then $cx - d$ is a factor of $p(x)$.
  • $p(x) = (cx - d) \cdot Q(x)$, where $Q(x)$ is the quotient polynomial.

General Form

  • For a polynomial $p(x)$ and a factor $cx - d$: $p(x) = (cx - d) \cdot Q(x)$.

Important Notes

  • The Factor Theorem is a case of the Remainder Theorem when the remainder is zero.
  • Useful for factorizing polynomials, especially cubic, by finding one factor.
  • If $p(x)$ has a root $\frac{d}{c}$, then $cx - d$ is a factor of $p(x)$.

Solving Cubic Equations

  • Factorization methods used that involve the Factor Theorem and the Quadratic Formula.

Key Formulas and Steps

  • Factor Theorem: If $f(\frac{d}{c}) = 0$, then $cx - d$ is a factor.
  • Quadratic Formula: For $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$: $x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}$.

Steps to Solve Cubic Equations

  • Identify a Factor: Use the Factor Theorem.
  • Factorize the Polynomial: $f(x) = (cx - d) \cdot Q(x)$.
  • Solve the Quadratic Polynomial: Use the quadratic formula to solve $Q(x) = 0$.
  • Combine Solutions: Combine solutions from the factors and the quadratic formula.

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