Descriptive Statistics and Variability
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary method used to calculate variance?

  • Multiply the standard deviation by the number of data points
  • Calculate the average of the squared differences from the mean
  • Sum all data points and divide by N
  • Sum the squared differences from the mean and divide by N-1 (correct)

Which type of probability is based on mathematical reasoning rather than personal judgment?

  • Theoretical probability (correct)
  • Qualitative probability
  • Subjective probability
  • Experimental probability

What is the significance of Z-scores in standardization?

  • They allow comparison across different scales by indicating relative position (correct)
  • They indicate the absolute value of a statistic
  • They automatically convert all data to a normal distribution
  • They provide a method to calculate variance directly

Which historical figure is credited with the early development of probability theory through gambling problems?

<p>Pascal (A), Fermat (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'classical probability' refer to in its historical context?

<p>The systematic mathematical study of chance initiated in the Renaissance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which measure of central tendency is least affected by extreme values in a dataset?

<p>Median (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of confidence intervals in frequentist statistics?

<p>To create a range that likely contains the population parameter (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the interquartile range calculated in descriptive statistics?

<p>By cutting off the top and bottom 25% of data and assessing the middle 50% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which description most accurately defines the mode in a dataset?

<p>The value that appears most frequently (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key assumption is fundamental to many frequentist statistical methods?

<p>Data must always be normally distributed (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the central limit theorem in relation to normal distributions?

<p>It indicates that adding many small independent factors yields a normal distribution. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the frequentist approach to probability?

<p>It connects the probabilities of events to their occurrences through long-run frequency. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Bernoulli’s law of large numbers relate to the expected value?

<p>It ensures that observed frequencies converge towards the expected value with larger sample sizes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason behind the Gaussian distribution being termed 'normal'?

<p>Most real-world phenomena are the aggregate of numerous small, independent factors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best characterizes the disadvantages of the classical probability method?

<p>It struggles to accurately represent outcomes in multifaceted scenarios. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of changes does the term 'discontinuity' refer to in the context of development?

<p>Qualitative changes involving new strategies or skills (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which domain of development specifically addresses changes in thinking and memory?

<p>Cognitive Domain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the Interactionist Model of Development?

<p>The complex interactions between nature and nurture (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which change is classified as a universal change within the context of age-related development?

<p>Common cognitive decline in late adulthood (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of toy design, what is the main purpose of creating age-appropriate toys?

<p>To support various elements of children's development (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes a limitation of cognitive psychology?

<p>Much research is conducted in artificial lab settings. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic advantage of systems theory in studying human development?

<p>It captures the complexity of interactions among multiple variables. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept in psychoanalytic theory represents the unconscious drive for physical pleasure?

<p>Libido (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common feature of evolutionary psychology?

<p>It posits that inherited traits have developed through natural selection. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Freud's theory, which part of personality is described as the moral judge?

<p>Superego (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Behaviour genetics suggests that traits are influenced by which of the following?

<p>Both genes and environmental factors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Freud's psychosexual stages denote development through a series of:

<p>Biologically determined sequences (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age can a child typically start walking alone?

<p>10-12 months (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of boys' play preferences during early development?

<p>Engagement in rough and tumble play (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is primarily caused by severe calorie deficiency in infants?

<p>Marasmus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of malnutrition due to insufficient protein intake?

<p>Permanent brain damage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a noted benefit of breastfeeding compared to bottle feeding for infants?

<p>Better immune system functioning (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When should routine immunization for infants begin?

<p>2 months (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor does NOT influence the quality of breastmilk?

<p>Infant's birth weight (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes micronutrient malnutrition?

<p>Deficiency of specific vitamins or minerals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What developmental milestone typically occurs between 19-24 months?

<p>Walking backwards (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major consequence of inconsistent exposure to a second language in infants?

<p>Decreased functional competence in language use (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Erikson's Trust versus Mistrust stage primarily emphasizes what aspect of an infant's development?

<p>The establishment of trust in their social environment (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement reflects the impact of maternal sensitivity on infant behavior?

<p>Mothers who are more sensitive tend to have infants who are less fussy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of attachment is characterized by an infant's discomfort in the presence of strangers?

<p>Stranger anxiety (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to attachment theory, what is a key genetic characteristic shared by all humans?

<p>The need to form attachment relationships early in life (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary reason for the different interactions fathers and mothers have with their infants?

<p>Fathers respond less consistently to infant cues than mothers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does synchronization have on the parent's attachment to the infant?

<p>It enhances the potential for long-term bonds (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically characterizes an infant's internal models of relationships by age 5?

<p>They significantly influence future relationship behaviors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of separation anxiety on infants?

<p>It causes expressions of discomfort upon being apart from attachment figures (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Central Tendency

A measure that represents the center of a data distribution.

Mean

Average of all values in a dataset; calculated by summing all values and dividing by total count.

Median

Middle value when data is ordered. Unaffected by extreme values.

Mode

The most frequent value in a dataset. Easily identified from histograms.

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Interquartile Range (IQR)

The range of the middle 50% of the data after removing the top and bottom 25% scores; unaffected by extreme values.

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Variance

A measure of how spread out numbers are from their average value.

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Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values.

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Z-score

A standardized value that tells you how many standard deviations a data point is from the mean.

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Probability

The likelihood, expressed as a number between 0 and 1, that an event will occur.

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Theoretical Probability

Probability calculated based on mathematical reasoning (e.g., coin tosses, dice rolls).

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Expected Value

The average outcome you can expect over many trials, calculated by weighting each outcome by its probability.

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Probability Distribution

A table or graph that maps each possible outcome to its probability of occurring.

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Frequentist Approach to Probability

Defines probability as the long-run frequency of an event, based on repeated observations.

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Bernoulli's Law of Large Numbers

As the number of trials increases, the observed frequency of an event gets closer to its true probability.

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Normal Distribution

A bell-shaped distribution where most values cluster around the mean, with fewer values farther out.

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Domains of Development

The three broad categories that encompass changes across the lifespan: cognitive, social, and physical.

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Toy's Role in Development

Toys are designed to promote various aspects of a child's development based on their age, challenging and stimulating them through play.

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Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Two ways to classify age-related changes: Continuity refers to quantitative changes (e.g., growth), while Discontinuity refers to qualitative changes (e.g., learning a new skill).

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Universal, Group-Specific, and Individual Changes

Three categories to classify age-related changes: universal changes affect everyone, group-specific changes affect specific groups, and individual changes are unique to each person.

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Interactionist Model of Development

A modern view of development that recognizes the complex interplay between nature (biology) and nurture (environment).

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Cognitive Psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on how the mind works, including memory, thinking, and perception.

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Systems Theory

An interdisciplinary perspective that views human development as a complex interplay of individual and contextual factors.

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Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression, impacting health and development.

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Ethology

The study of animal behavior in their natural environments, focusing on genetically programmed survival behaviors.

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Behaviour Genetics

The study of how genetic factors influence individual differences in behavior.

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Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how human cognitive and social traits evolved through natural selection to enhance survival.

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Freud's Psychosexual Stages

A series of stages, determined by maturation, that children move through, influenced by internal drives and emotions, impacting their personalities.

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Oral Stage

Freud's first psychosexual stage (birth to 2 years), where infants derive satisfaction from the mouth through sucking, biting, and chewing.

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Weaning Process

The transition from breastfeeding or bottle-feeding to solid foods, a crucial aspect of the Oral Stage.

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Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first psychosocial stage (0-2 years), where infants learn to trust caregivers and the world, or develop a sense of mistrust and uncertainty.

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Attachment

A strong emotional bond between an infant and their caregiver, providing security and a sense of belonging.

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Synchrony

Mutual, interlocking patterns of behavior shared by parent and child, contributing to the development of attachment.

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Stranger Anxiety

An infant's discomfort or distress when encountering unfamiliar people.

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Separation Anxiety

An infant's distress when separated from their primary attachment figure.

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Social Referencing

An infant's use of others' facial expressions and reactions to interpret ambiguous situations.

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Secure Attachment

A healthy attachment style characterized by a child feeling safe and secure, exploring their environment, and readily seeking comfort from their caregiver.

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Breastfeeding Benefits

Breast milk provides superior nutrition compared to formula, promoting faster weight gain, reduced illness risk, and a stronger immune system.

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Solid Foods Introduction

Healthy infants are typically ready to start consuming solid foods around 6 months of age.

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Macronutrient Malnutrition

A diet lacking in sufficient calories, often leading to severe health issues and death in young children.

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Marasmus

A severe form of malnutrition caused by a severe calorie deficiency, leading to extreme smallness and potential brain damage.

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Kwashiorkor

A malnutrition type characterized by a protein deficiency, resulting in fluid retention and a swollen belly.

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Micronutrient Malnutrition

A deficiency in certain essential vitamins and minerals, commonly found in industrialized nations.

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Routine Immunization Start

Infants should begin receiving routine immunizations at two months of age, and continue through childhood and adolescence.

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Gender Differences in Development

Girls often show earlier physical maturity and may have an advantage in some manipulative skills, while boys are generally more physically active.

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Physical Development Milestones (7-18 Months)

Infants develop various motor skills during this period, including sitting, crawling, pulling up, walking, and manipulating objects.

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Study Notes

Descriptive Statistics

  • Descriptive statistics describe collected data, focusing on characteristics of interest.
  • A sample represents a population, allowing for generalizations.
  • Common descriptive statistics include averages (mean, median, mode), measures of variability (spread, range), and the mode, median, and mean.
  • Key aspects (frequentist) involve data distribution assumptions (e.g., normality), which influence the validity of results.

Central Tendency

  • Central tendency represents the center of a distribution.
  • Measured using mean, median, and mode.
  • Mean is strongly affected by extreme values, while median and mode are less affected by extreme values.

Variability

  • Variability measures the spread of data.
  • Measured using range, variance, and standard deviation.
  • Range is the difference between the highest and lowest values.
  • Variance is the average squared deviation from the mean.
  • Standard deviation is the square root of variance.

Histograms

  • Histograms visually represent the distribution of data.
  • Data values are organized into bins on the x-axis, while frequencies are shown on the y-axis.
  • Histograms help in understanding the shape of data distributions (e.g., normal, skewed).

Confidence Intervals

  • Confidence intervals provide a range estimating a population parameter.
  • Confidence level indicates the frequency of such an interval containing the parameter if the experiment was repeated.

Probability:

  • Probability measures the chance of an event occurring.
  • Theoretical, subjective, and experimental probabilities exist.
  • Key figures in the development of probability theory include Pascal and Fermat.

Frequentist Approach:

  • Frequency analysis deals with occurrences in repeated observations.
  • Relative frequency estimates probability (long-run frequency).
  • Bernoulli's law of large numbers demonstrates convergence of calculated frequencies toward true probabilities as trials increase.
  • The Wisdom of Crowds suggests that aggregate judgment can be accurate.

Normal Distribution:

  • The normal distribution is bell-shaped and symmetrical.
  • Data clusters around the central tendency, with fewer data points at the extremes.

Statistical Distributions:

  • Describes the probability of variables, for example, Binomial, etc.
  • Useful for both descriptive and inferential statistics.

Bayesian Approach:

  • The Bayesian approach combines prior beliefs, data, and likelihood.
  • The result is a posterior (updated belief).
  • It allows incorporation of prior knowledge with observed new data.

Correlation

  • Measures the degree of change between two continuous variables.
  • Expressed by a correlation coefficient (e.g., Pearson's r), ranging from -1 to +1, where values near ±1 indicates a strong relationship, values near 0 suggests a weak relationship.

Regression

  • Predicts one continuous variable (outcome) based on another (predictor).
  • A linear relationship is assumed. A least squares method identifies a best-fit line.

Hypothesis Testing

  • Involves comparing observed data to a null hypothesis, often assuming no effect.
  • A p-value measures the probability of observing the results, or more extreme results, under the null hypothesis.
  • A small p-value suggests evidence against the null and supports the alternative hypothesis.

T-tests

  • Used to compare means between two groups.
  • Independent t-test: compares means between two independent groups (e.g., different treatments).
  • Paired t-test: compares means from two related measurements from the same participants (matched pairs).

Statistical Inference (general notes)

  • Uses samples to draw conclusions about populations.
  • Common tests include, but are not limited to, the t-test and regression.
  • Assumptions, such as the data being normally distributed, need to be considered.

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Related Documents

Week 7 Descriptive Statistics PDF
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Description

This quiz covers key concepts in descriptive statistics, focusing on central tendency and variability. You will explore measures such as mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation. Understanding these statistics is crucial for interpreting data and making valid conclusions.

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